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Mi 




EVERY TEACHER. 




This series of Books for Teachers be^an with the issue in 1375 of 
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he also keeps close watch of auction sales, both in this country and 
abroad, in order to secure such works a a »tp -nm* "—* of print," but 

se is solicited, 



which have 
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law as to 
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To which i 
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and manu- 

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cts; Cards, 

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Rndenck Hume. The story of a New York Teacher. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 



295. 



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-VERBAL PITFALLS. A manual of 1500 misused words, compiled from 

leading authorities. Cloth , lttmo. , pp. 223 75 

Some Facts about our Public Schools. An argument for the Township 

System. 8vo, pp. 32 25 

Educational Journalism. 8vo, pp. 30 ■ <*«> 

The School Bulletin Year Booh : Educational directory of the State of 

New York for 1879. 8vo, pp. 40, with map 1 00 

Bassett (J. A.) LATITUDE, LONGITUDE AND TIME. Embracing a com- 
prehensive discussion, with over 100 illustrative questions and examples. 

Manilla. 16nio,pp. 42 25 

Beebe (Levi N.) First Steps among Figures. A Drill Book m the lunida- 
mental Rules of Arithmetic, based upon the Grube Method. Teachers' 

Edition. Cloth. l6mo. pp. 32ti 1 99 

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Bee»Hu (Amable) The Spirit of Education. 16mo„ pp.325 1 25 

Bennett (Prof. C. W.) National Education. Paper, 8vo., pp. 28 la 

Bible The, in the Public Schools. Vols. I, II ■ • ■...••• 50 

Bradford (W. H.) The Thirty Possible Problems of Percentage. Flexible 
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Brown, (C. J.) Practical Writing Portfolio, consisting of the most ap- 
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Backhaul (Henry B.) Handbook for Young Teachers. First Steps. Cloth, 



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Buell (u. J.) The Elements of Education. Paper, lOmo, pp 25 15 

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Burchard (O. R.) Two montfis in Europe. Paper. 12mo, pp. 158 50 

Cheney (F.) A Qlobe Manual for Schools. Boards, 16mo, pp. 95 50 

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Collins (Henry.) The International Date Line. Paper, 16mo, pp. 15 ... 15 

Coin in on School Thermometer, in box, postpaid 50 

Constitution of the United States and of N". Y. Cloth, 12mo., pp. 82 25 

Cooke (Sidney G.l Politics and Schools. Paper, 8vo., pp. 23 25 

Craig (Asa 11.) T\ve Common School Question, Book. Cloth 12mo, pp. 340 1 50 

Davis (W. W.) Suggestions for Teaching Fractions. Paper, 12mo, pp. 43.> 25 
Be Graflf (E. V.) Practical Phonics. A comprehensive study of Pronun- 
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the English Language, and containing 3,000 words of ditlicult pronuncia- 
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Manilla, 16mo, pp. 47 ' 13 

The School-Room Guide, embodying the instruction given by the author 

at Teachers' Institutes in New York and other States, and especially 
Intended to assist Public School Teachers in the practical work of the 
school-room. Tenth Edition, with many additions and corrections. 
Cloth, 12mo, pp. 449 1 50 

The Song Budget. A collection of Songs and Music for schools and 

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The School-Rwm Cnwus. A collection of 200 Songs, suitable for Public 

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Dickinson (J. Vi .) Limits of Oral Teaching. Paper, 8vo, pp. 8 15 

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Farnham (Geo. L.) The Sentence Mttlwd Of teaching Beading, Writing, 

and Spelling. A Manual for Teachers. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 50 50 

Fitch (Joshua G.) The Art of Questioning. 8d Edition. Paper, 12mo, pp. ?,C 10 

The Art of Securing Attention. Paper, 16mo, pp. 48. Second edition. 15 

Giffln (Wm. M.) How Not to Teach; or, 100 Tilings the Teacher should 

NOT do. Paper, 16mo, pp. 31 15 

Hail mann ( W. N.) R indergarten Manual. Primary Helps 75 

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Hendrick (Mary F.) A series of Questions in Enqlish and American Litera- 
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THE 



School-Room Guide, 

EMBODYING THE INSTRUCTION GIVEN BY THE AUTHOR AT 

TEACHERS 1 INSTITUTES, 

IN NEW YORK AND OTHER STATES, 

AND ESPECIALLY INTENDED TO ASSIST 

Public School Teachers 



IN THE 



Practical Work of the School-Room, 

BY 

E. V. DeG-RAFF, A.M., 

AUTHOR OF "PRACTICAL PHONICS," "POCKET PRONUNCIATION 

BOOK," "THE SONG BUDGET," "THE SCHOOL ROOM 

CHORUS," "DEVELOPMENT LESSONS," 

ETC. , ETC. 



Thirtieth Edition, from Entirely New Plates. 




UJ}£A 



i 

SYRACUSE, N. Y. : 

C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER. 

1884. 




Copyright, E. V. DeGraff, 1877, 1884. 



LB I sss 
.JM87 



TO THE 

TEACHERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 

TO WHOM 

HAVE BEEN ENTRUSTED THE TEACHING 

AND 

THE TRAINING OF THE RISING GENERATION, 

THIS VOLUME, 

WRITTEN FOR THEIR AID AND ENCOURAGEMENT, 

IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 

BY THEIR FRIEND, 

THE AUTHOR. 



Preface to Thirtieth Edition 



For the third time in seven years an entirely new set 
of plates is required for this volume. The author has 
availed himself of this opportunity carefully to revise 
every paragraph, and to modify, to omit, and to add, 
wherever the proper investigation and experience of 
pedagogical thought has seemed to require it. 

Much is said just now of " The Quincy Method." It is a 
gratification to the author to know that this work, written 
before Col. Parker went to Quincy, was a favorite text- 
book of Col. Parker's in the Quincy school itself; and to 
believe that it is in spirit and method characterized by 
much that is best in this new and healthful movement. 

The author takes this occasion to acknowledge many 
kind letters from teachers who have expressed their per- 
sonal indebtedness to this work. That he has been ena- 
bled to make the path easier to untried teachers, surer 
to those who lacked confidence, and broader to those 
whose feet were assured, is a reward for which he is 
profoundly grateful. 

Esmond V. De Graff. 
Washington, D. C, Aug. 25, 1884. 



PREFACE TO THE Fl F^ST EDITION. 



Manuals, both general and special, have been pub- 
lished, relating to the teacher's work. Information 
scattered through a multitude of volumes is usually in- 
accessible to those by whom it is most needed; and con- 
sequently, the most important results of study and 
research are often of no avail to those whose special 
office it is to apply them to a practical purpose. Hence 
the need of works that present in a condensed form, 
and so as to be easily referred to, the important facts of 
pedagogy. 

Accordingly, the first announcement of this work was 
greeted with the most earnest expressions of approba- 
tion and welcome. The design was to prepare a work 
which, while comprehensive and complete within its 
scope, would, like the dictionary, be upon every teach- 
er's desk, to be consulted whenever occasion may re- 
quire, thus affording information and practical aid in 
every exigency of his daily labors. 

The School Room Guide, it must be born in mind, is but 
a pioneer, opening out, it is hoped, a wide path for fu- 
ture literary and professional effort in the same direc- 
tion. The author is by no means so persumptuous as 
to suppose that he has produced a work without fault 
or blemish ; it will doubtless share the fate of all books 
of its class, the scrutinizing criticism of the public. In 



PREFACE. V 

future editions of the work, pains will be taken to cor- 
rect what is faulty and to improve what is imperfect ; 
any assistance which those who appreciate the aim of 
the work may be able to render toward that end, will be 
gratefully acknowledged. 

The views contained in the Manual are the result of 
a prolonged experience in the school-room and in 
teachers' institutes. 

The labor expended in the preparation of the volume 
was very great. It has formed a daily subject of 
thought for the past five years. Many of the lessons 
have been revised three or four times. 

This is hardly the place to confess how often the task 
was about to be abandoned from the disproportion felt 
to exist between its magnitude and the limited powers 
that could be summoned to execute it ; but it was as 
often resumed, and is now completed — completed, but 
not perfected. 

This work has been prepared with three objects in 
view : first completeness, that nothing be wanting to assist 
the teacher or student ; second, c»rrectness, that nothing 
erroneous be taught ; and, third, brevity, that its readers 
might not be obliged to read volumes in order to learn 
how to teach the different subjects. 

To carry out the plan of this book, much reading, as 
well as much thinking, has been done : to tell where 
and by whom this fact or that method was obtained is an 
impossibility. 

Wishing to do justice to everybody, no claim that 
may be fairly made to any idea, fact, or method in it 
will be disputed ; but it is hoped that something may 
be left even when all claims are satisfied. Nothing, 



VI PREFACE. 

however has been taken from others and used without 
close investigation. All facts, methods and principles 
found in the book, come whence they may, have been 
fused into a common whole. The whole — this collect- 
ing and uniting of the scattered fragments of thought 
concerning education — this system, — is what the author 
asks credit for, if credit be deemed his due. 

In every subject the author has given : first, an intro- 
duction, followed by several lessons upon the same sub- 
jects ; second, explicit directions ; third, cautions to be 
observed ; and fourth, results to be attained. 

It is hoped that in this volume a systematic treatise for 
the special guidance of the teacher may be found upon 
all subjects taught in our public schools. 

As a preparation for the successful study and prac- 
tice of this book, it is necessary to understand the sev- 
eral branches of knowledge taught. 

After the students or teachers become familiar with 
the subjects, they should study the directions, — or, as 
they are termed — methods of teaching. 

By study, much may be accomplished with it ; with- 
out study, little. 

The wise teacher will remember that the methods 
presented in this work are offered as aids to honest 
effort, not as substitutes for personal exertion. 

The teacher who uses them as mere machines for 
lessening the labor of thinking, will fail. No one can 
succeed by blind imitation. All successful teachers 
must work out their own salvation in reaching a 
rational solution of the problems presented by their 
profession. 

These methods are the fruits of practical experience 



PREFACE. VI 1 

and definite principles of action. The teacher should 
study, digest and appropriate the underlying principles, 
before attempting to apply the forms. 

There can be no efficient substitute for the individ- 
uality of the teacher. 

The power of a formal method lies in its snggestive- 
ness ; it gives decision to the thoughts of the honest 
inquirer and pilots him toward the goal of success : but 
he must attain it by his own preserving effort. 

Teaching is an art as well as a science ; it requires 
apprenticeship in doing things as well as in reasoning 
out relations. 

The condition of success in every calling is personal 
strength ; the armor of Achilles would be only a bur- 
densome obstruction to a stripling. Hobby riding gives 
a delusive appearance of progress, but the age runs 
away from the rider. 

The author acknowledges his indebtedness to the 
educational works of the various publishing houses of 
New York : among them, Scribner, Armstrong & Co.; 
Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co.; A. S. Barnes & Co.; 
Harper & Brothers ; Clark & Maynard ; Taintor 
Brothers, Merrill & Co.; and D. Appleton & Co. 

To all who have aided in the work, the thanks of 
the author are due ; it could not have possessed the 
value which may, with considerable confidence, be at- 
tributed to it, had it not been for cordial support ; and 
certainly could not have earned the approval which it 
may justly be expected to receive. The author also 
takes occasion to express his-obligationsto many friends 
who have afforded valuable aid to giving important ad- 
vice, or in affording needed information. Among the 



VI11 PREFACE. 

number are Dr. Joseph Alden, president of the State 
Normal School at Albany ; Miss Minnie Sherwood, 
principal of public school, Auburn, N. Y. ; John Ken- 
nedy, Buffalo, N. Y. ; also to associate instructors, 
school commissioners and superintendents of public 
schools. 

To all of these the author would extend his grateful 
acknowledgement for encouragement and valuable 
suggestions. 

Sincerely hoping that this Manual will contribute to 
the cause of education, it is most respectfully submitted 
to the public. 

Albany, November 1, 1877. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

The first edition of this work having been entirely 
sold before it was received from the binder, I am com- 
pelled to make this revision more hasty than I could 
have desired. The subject? have been entirely rear- 
ranged and indexed by head-lines, however, and many 
corrections have been made. I shall be glad of sug- 
gestions for future revision. 

E. V. DeGRAFF. 

Albany, December 15, 1877. 



F 



EADING. 



Methods Used in Teaching Children to Read. 

Methods. 

1. The Word Method. 

2. The Object Method. 

4. The Phonetic Method. 

5. The Phonotypic Method. 

6. The Word-Building Method. 
1. The Look-and-say Method. 

8. The Sentence Method. 

9. The Drawing Method. 

10. The A, b, c, or Alphabetic Method. 

That teachers may distinguish good methods from 
poor ones, descriptions will be given of some of the plans 
employed for the first lesson in reading. 

Some are old, long, unnatural and tedious, affording 
little but monotony to stimulate the child's desire to 
learn. Others may be shorter, but none the less unnat- 
ural and arbitary. 

Some are un philosophical, and leave no cause for sur- 
prise that so many children flounder at the very thresh- 
old of knowledge, the very place that should be made 
most attractive. The Word Method will receive close 
attention, and it is hoped that those teachers who are 
not familliar with it will study it and use it. 



10 READING. 

How to Teach Pupils to Read by the Word 

Method. 

/. Directions. 

1. Call the attention of the children to some object. 

2. Ask questions about the object. 

3. Talk to the children about the object. 

4. Ask the children to give the name of the object. 

5. Show a picture of the object. 

6. Make a drawing on the board of the object. 

7. Print and write the word on the board. 

8. Let the pupils copy the word on their slates. 

9. Group words into phrases. 

10. Group words into sentences. 

11. After the pupils learn one sentence, use it in 
making other sentences. 

12. Select words that are the names of familiar 
objects. 

II. Cautions. 

1. Present only two or three new words for each lesson. 

2. Teach the children to recognize words as signs of 
ideas. 

3. At first give no attention to elements of which 
words are composed; as the elementary sounds, and 
letters. 

4. Attempt no spelling of any of the words. 

III. Results. 

1. Knowledge. 

2. Naturalness of expression. 

3. Fluency. 



the word method. 11 

Remarks. — In the earliest stages of the course) teach> 
ing precedes learning; the child's steps are guided and 
upheld by the teacher ; his way is made clear for him, 
and his difficulties are anticipated. It is essential that 
the child shall have a liking for the work in which he is 
engaged. It is the spirit of the teacher rather than 
his methods that ensures success in teaching little ones 
to read. 

In the word method, we begin by teaching words, 
leading the children to recognize them as wholes. 
This method is now used extensively ; it was the 
method used by the race in developing the language. 
Nature is the guide of both parents and children. There 
is a fitness in her means that secures, in the most simple 
way, the most desirable ends. We have become arti- 
ficial, mechanical in teaching ; we need to retrace our 
steps and imitate nature's process. 

Follow Nature's Plan. 

Nature begins with objects — the idea first, its signs 
second, and the ability to represent the idea of its signs 
third — the natural order of learning language, and the 
natural order of using it, are made to correspond. The 
word soon becomes familiar to the child. It is the 
object of thought. 

The word method begins with words, and not letters. 
To teach the word "hat" it does not teach first the 
letters A, #, t, and say "7^/"but it takes the word and 
calls it "hat" without any reference to the fact that the 
printed word is made up of letters. 

The Thing Before the Sign. 
The thing before the sign is the rule in teaching. 



12 BEADING. 

Words that are not signs of things can be illustrated by 
examples: for instance, white, by showing the color; 
runs, by showing the act ; on, by showing the position, 
etc. By this method it will take no more time to teach 
the word, its elementary sounds, letters and spelling, 
than the lettres alone by the old way of teaching the 
letters first. 

Let the teacher aim to get the children to talk freely. 
If possible, present a real object to the class: a picture, 
or a drawing. Ask questions to draw out what the 
children know of the object. You now have excited an 
interest; show the class the word; print or write the 
word under the drawing; tell the children that the 
word is a picture of the real object; require the children 
to pronounce it several times; print the word in several 
places on the board; and require the children to pro- 
nounce it in concert. 

In like maimer teach quality words: for example, 
" red ;" show an object that is red, and print on the 
board the words, u a red cup," and request pupils to 
read the phrase. That the plan of teaching children 
to read by the word method may be made more clearly 
understood and readily applied, the following directions 
are given: 

How to Teach by the Wobd Method. 

Let the teacher begin by a familiar conversation with 
the children about some object. It is of little import- 
ance what words are taught first, if the words are short 
ones and familiar to the children by use in conversation, 
and the object which the words represent and the 
pictures can be readily shown. The object of the talk 



WORDS THE OBJECTS OF THOUGHT. 13 

and questions should be to put the child in conscious 
possession of a knowledge of the thing, or of what the 
word represents. 

When the child has the knowledge, and not before, 
the teacher may show him the sign, i. e., the word. 

As soon as the word is presented the child should 
print it on his slate. A little practice will enable the 
child to print it rapidly. The printing will fix the word 
in the mind. 

In very many of the best schools in our cities the 
children are taught at first to write the word; not per- 
mitted to print it for the reason that in afterlife we use 
script, not the printed forms. 

If the pupils are receiving, as they should be, daily 
lessons in writing, in a very short time they will be 
able to copy the sentence from the board on the slates. 

This is a very important exercise, not only on account 
of the practice in writing which it affords, but for giv- 
ing the children something attractive and useful to do, 
and preventing mischievous habits, greatly lightening 
the burdens of disciplining them. The teacher should 
take some sharp instrument and rule one side of the 
slate, and the children should be encouraged to do the 
work neatly and correctly. 

Letters and Sounds. 

The child knows nothing of vowels, consonants and 
articulation; nothing about letters, when he looks upon 
the printed page. 

The word, the word ! This is the object of thought. 
The printed word is the object presented to the mind 



14 READING. 

of the child. It is presented through the eye. It is 
known by its form; the child learns to recognize the 
words by their forms, as it learns to recognize other 
objects. The names of the letters are no guides to 
the correct pronounciation of words, and they can be 
of no possible service to the children in learning to 
read. 

After the children have made considerable progress 
in reading words, the teacher may call their attention 
to the elementary sounds of which the w T ords are com- 
posed. 

Combined Method. 

Some teachers combine the Word and Phonic Methods, 
and after the word is learned by sight, teach the 
elementary sounds. This is not necessary to this plan 
of teaching reading, and if the teacher thinks best, may 
be omitted. 

Children have been taught to read in a very few 
weeks by this plan, and we would encourage primary 
teachers to try it. It is very useful in cultivating dis- 
tinctness in articulation, and in aiding the children to 
acquire new words. 

The Names of Letters. 

When the pupils have been made familiar with the 
words that have been taught by sight, so as readily to 
pronounce them, and give their elementary sounds, the 
teacher may call the attention of the children to the 
names of their letters; but as a rule the children will 
learn the names of the letters soon enough, without any 
help from the teacher. 



THE OBJECT METHOD. 15 

As soon as the letters are taught, by all means 
show their use by putting them together and making 
the word; use the same letters in forming new words. 

There is but little variance between the Object 
Method and the Word Method. The introductory 
part is the same, and both should be combined in 
order to interest the children. Whole words should 
be presented, and the pupils required to pronounce 
them, without spelling, by sight. Subsequently the 
analysis of these words into sounds and letters may be 
taught. 

First, teach words that are the names of things; then 
words representing the names of qualities and actions. 
The little connective words and those that are used 
as substitutes for other words, should not be taught 
until they are needed in the construction of phrases and 
sentences. 

We Avill briefly refer to other methods used in teach- 
ing children to read. 

The Object Method. 

The children's attention is first directed to some 
object with which they are familiar by sight, name and 
use. 

The teacher shows the object to the children, and the 
name is given by the children. If they cannot give 
the name, the teacher tells them. The teacher presents 
a picture of the object, or makes a drawing of it upon 
the board; then the name is plainly written under the 
drawing. The pupils are now taught to distinguish 
from one another the object, the picture of it, and the 
word representing it. 



1 6 READING. 



Steps in Reading by the Object Method. 

The following order should be observed in teaching 
beginners to read by the Object Method, as used by 
N. A. Calkins, Assistant Superintendent of Schools in 
New York city: 

First Step. — Teach whole words by sight that are 
already known by hearing, as signs of objects, qualities, 
and actions. 

Second Step. — Teach the analysis of the word by its 
elementary sounds. 

Third Step. — Teach the analysis of the word by the 
names of its letters, and their order in spelling it. 

Fourth Step. — Require the pupils to pronounce the 
word; sound it; spell it. 

Fifth Step. — Group words into phrases and sentences. 

The children will learn new words by comparing the 
known words with the unknown. 

The Phonic Method. 

Every intelligent and unprejudiced mind will wel- 
come any means by which loose and bad habits of enun- 
ciation may be cast off, and correct ones formed in their 
stead. 

Children who have been taught and accustomed to 
say judgmunt for judgment, read^n for reading, an for and, 
muss for must, parent for parent, pass for pass, etc , will 
not be likely, by a single effort, to set their speech 
right. By well directed and persevering effort they 
can do it; with proper guidance and encouragement 
they will do it. A thorough knowledge of the element- 



THE PHOKIC METHOD. 17 

ary sounds is essential to success in the Phonic Method. 
It must be made a careful study and the teacher should 
master it. 

The Phonic Method consists in making the learner 
acquainted with the powers of the letters, so that when 
words are before him, he may, by uttering the sound 
of each letter in succession, construct for himself 
the sound of the word. Such a method, says John 
Gill, of the Normal College, Cheltenham, it is impossi- 
ble to have in a language like the English. A purely 
phonic method is possible only where the number of 
letters and elementary sounds correspond, where the 
same letter always represents the same sound, and 
where, in the spelling of words, the numbers of letters 
and of sounds aoree. But these conditions in English 
are impossible. The letters are but five-eighths of 
the elementary sounds; one letter often represents two 
or more sounds; some sounds are represented by more 
than one letter, and often letters are found not sounded 
at all. 

The principal advantage of this method is, that 
it puts into the hands the children a key by which 
they may be able to help themselves. The elementary 
sounds must be known before the children can take a 
single step in advance, except as he is assisted by the 
teacher. 

The best results have been gained by the primary 
teachers in using the Phonic Method as auxiliary to the 
Word Method, but not as a substitute for it. The word 
must be the unit of thought; it is the natural way to 
begin with the units of language, which are words. 



18 READING. 

Language deals with thoughts; words are symbols of 
thought. 

Letters are elements of the forms of words; simple 
sounds are the elements of the sounds of words; neither 
of these elements are units in language. The child 
must know the sounds and the names of the letters; 
through these aids it may be able to help itself. This 
process, however, is not adapted to the child, until it 
has learned some words as wholes, as units of language, 
aDd as representations of thoughts. 

Another advantage also is, it teaches the children 
from the beginning to enunciate distinctly; many other 
advantages are gained by combining the Word and 
Phonic Methods. 

With all the plans that have been considered, let the 
teachers bear in mind that children can never learn to 
read with any degree of ease until they are able to call 
instantly the words in the sentence without stopping to 
analyze them. 

By the method suggested, children are enabled to 
read with more interest and expression in a far shorter 
time than by the plans heretofore generally pursued. 

The Phonetic Method. 

The Phonic and Phonetic Methods are distinct; the 
phonetic method provides signs to represent all the 
sounds of the language, using the common letters each 
to denote but one sound of that letter, and providing 
slight modifications of these letters to denote other 
sounds. This method is used with success in those 
schools provided with Leigh's Phonetic Reader. 



three more methods. 19 

The Phonotypic Method. 

This is another form of the Phonic Method, providing 
a character or letter for each sound in the language. 

The pupil is required to learn forty or more letters 
in place of twenty-six. 

There are those who claim that pupils will learn both 
methods, and become able to read better thereby, in a 
a given time, than they usually do when taught entirely 
from the common print. 

This method may be used with success ; but, as the 
schools are not provided with books on the Phonotypic 
plan, we will not enlarge upon it. 

The Word-Building Method. 

Its plan is to begin with words of one letter, as A, I, 
O, and gradually form new words by prefixing or affixing 
single letters. The child is taught to pronounce first 
the word, then the letters that form it. Separate letters 
of the alphabet and spelling are taught by asking 
questions similar to the following : 

" What letter is placed after a to form an?" 

"What after an to form and ?" 

" What before and to form land ?" 

The Look-and-Say Method. 

This method is that in which, after the children have 
mastered the alphabet, all words are read without 
spelling. 

Attention is directed to each word as a whole, and its 
sound associated with it as a whole. 

In no case is the learner allowed to spell a word that 
he may afterwards recognize and pronounce it. 



20 READING. 

The following advantages are claimed in favor of this 
method : 

First — For mastering the word by the eye. 

Second — For recognizing the word in the sign, and for 
acquiring practical acquaintance with the number of let- 
ters and syllables. 

Third — For its suitability to the circumstances of com- 
mon schools. 

The above reasons must commend this method to 
many teachers who have not received special training. 
It best meets the requirements of class instruction. In 
the class, the aim is to bring out the energies of all. 
This is done through emulation and self-respect. 

Now when spelling is permitted, a child has little in- 
ducement to exert itself to retain a word once seen; but 
let spelling be forbidden, let the remembrance of the 
word be thrown on the eye, and emulation will stimulate 
some to retain it, and to give it when called upon; and 
self-respect will be appealed to in the others, not to 
require always to be told by a sharper companion. It is 
a method which requires no special preparation like the 
phonic, and therefore may be entrusted to an inexpe 
rienced teacher. 

The Sentence Method. 

Iu this method the teacher does not begin with the 
letters, nor with separate words, but with words in com- 
bination, that express a thought. Using this combina- 
tion of w 7 ords as a unit, the separate words are learned, 
as the separate letters are learned by the Word Method, 
that is, without special effort and almost, if not quite, 
unconsciously. 



THE SENTENCE METHOD. 21 

In teaching by this method let it be the aim of the 
teacher, not so much to teach separate sounds, letters and 
words, as to teach and secure the proper expression of 
thought. 

The letters and words must be known, but as they 
will necessarily become known by this method without 
much special teaching, they are regarded and treated as 
of secondary importance for the time being. 

The attention of the children should be directed to 
the thought. To this end, real objects anil facts are at 
h'rst employed to appeal to the senses and to demand of 
the child words to give the thought oral expression. 

In learning to talk, children acquire ideas from objects, 
and then seek language to express them. It requires a 
combination of words to express a thought, or to give 
birth to a new idea or thought. 

The advantages claimed for this method over others 
are : 

First — It is a perfectly natural way — teaching the 
chikl to read very much as he learned to talk. 

Second — The attention of the child is directed to the 
expression of the thought; hence he reads easily and 
naturally. 

Third — It makes the child thoughtful, and hence 
cultivates his intelligence. 

This method was h'rst systematically used in the 
schools of Binghamton, N. Y., and is fully explained in 
" The Sentence Method of Teaching Reading," by G. L. 
Farnham, former Superintendent of Schools ; price 50 
cents, 



22 BEADING. 

The Drawing Method. 

As all words are made up of the letters of the alpha- 
bet, and differ from each other only in the order and 
number of letters, the first step in teaching reading, 
whatever may have been the subsequent method, has 
been to teach the children these characters. 

Many have been the devices to accomplish this, but 
this method we will present as one of the most succss- 
ful. It is the Drawing Method; that is the teaching the 
child first to draw the letter, and then learn its name. 

This process combines from the first the two great 
instruments of teaching and reproducing — the former 
giving knowledge, and the latter testing it and giving 
skill. 

Since curiosity, which is so strong in the child, seeks 
its gratification in finding new forms, this method of 
drawing can be used as a means of training his eye to 
quickness and accuracy of observation. Lessons should 
be given upon straight, curved and crooked lines, that 
the children may know what is meant by the terms 
used. 

By actually drawing and naming the parts of a letter, 
its form and name, as a whole, may be easily impressed 
on the memory of the pupil. In this manner the 
learning of the alphabet, instead of being a spiritless 
task, as it has too often proved, is exceedingly attractive 
to the child and becomes a valuable aid in cultivating 
the sense of sight. 

This method may be used with a fair degree of 
success in ungraded schools, 



THE ALPHABET METHOD. 23 

The Alphabet, or A B C Method. 

The children by this method, are taught the names 
of the letters, and they begin to spell words at first. 
This attempts learning to read by learning to spell. 
Spelling may be learned through reading, but reading 
through spelling never. The attempt to combine two 
things in one lesson, by diverting the learners' attention, 
interferes with his progress in recognizing the words. 

This method was universally used years ago, and even 
now is used in many of the ungraded schools. In the 
best schools, the alphabetic method is superseded by 
some of the modern ways. It is an imperfect method 
in that the letters do not guide to the pronunciation of 
the word. 

Take the word mat; by the same method, the name 
of the first letter is em; the second letter is e, and the 
third tee; — pronounced em a tee; by the phonic it be- 
comes mat. 

This method produces halting, stumbling readers, 
and it is now abandoned by all good teachers of reading; 
it also lays the foundation for mechanical, unintelligible 
reading, which characterizes most of the schools where 
it is taught. 

Remarks. — We have given ten different methods of 
teaching reading. To those who have no method, we 
hope that we offer one, at least, that they may use with 
success. 

Give special attention to the primary classes in reading; if a 
child is not taught to read well during his first two years 
in school, he will probably be a poor reader through life. 



24 READING. 

Primary Reading. 

I. Directions. 

1. Train the pupils to pronounce the words readily at 
sight. 

(a) Print or write the words on the board in 
columns; pupils to pronounce thera at sight. 

(b) Write difficult words on the board, and sylla- 
bicate them; mark the accented syllables; 
pupils to pronounce them. 

(c) Require the pupils to pronounce the words 
forward; reverse. 

(d) Require the pupils to bring in a portion or 
all of the reading lesson upon the slate; 
pupils read the lesson from the slate. 

(e) Alternate. 

II. Cautions, 

1. Present to the pupils only one difficulty at a 
time. 

2. Never permit the pupils to spell words in read- 
ing. 

3. Insist upon correct articulation and pronuncia- 
tion. 

Remarks.— If the pupils in the first lessons of 
reading are taught correctly, they will not spell words 
audibly. 

Many of the common faults in reading may be 
traced to the improper methods in use during the 
first lessons in this subject. Bad habits at this period 



READ WORDS, NOT LETTERS. 25 

usually cling to the pupils during all their school 
days, and often seriously affect their entire future pro- 
gress. 

The first lessons in reading are of the greatest im- 
portance, and they should be given in a proper manner. 

To do this successfully there must be a system in the 
plans pursued. 

Reading Words. 

The pupils must be familiar with the words of the 
lesson, so that they can readily pronounce them at 
sight. 

The teacher should introduce a short preliminary 
exercise, for calling the words at sight, as follows: 

Teacher and children alternating one word each; 
boys and girls alternating one word each; careless 
pupils alternating with class; each pupil reading a line 
as rapidly as possible. 

In no instance should the teacher let a pupil stop to 
spell a word. The plan is in violation of the funda- 
mental laws of teaching. It. attempts to compel the 
child to do two things at the same time, and to do both 
in an unnatural manner, viz. : to learn reading and 
spelling simultaneously, and reading through spelling. 

Reading has to deal with sounds and signs of 
thoughts. Spelling rests on a habit of the eye, which 
is best acquired by writing. 

In attempting to teach reading through spelling the 
effort distracts the attention from the thought; read- 
ing furnishes facilities for teaching spelling; but spell- 



26 READING. 

ing does not furnish a suitable means for teaching 
reading. If spelling is permitted, a love of reading is 
not enkindled; good readers are not produced. The 
above lesson on " Primary Reading," if faithfully pre- 
sented, will remedy the defects, and not make halting, 
stumbling readers. 

Phonics. 
The teacher should be familiar with the sounds of 
the letters, and require the pupils to practice on them 
two or three minutes daily. Let it be a lively exercise, 
and insist upon clear, distinct articulation. 

Difficulties. 
Attend to one difficult point at a time; see that the 
pupils understand it and are able to reproduce whatever 
you teach them. 

Primary Reading. 

Further Directions. 

1. Train the pupils to read in natural tones. 

(a) Request the pupil to look off the book and 
tell what he reads. 

(I) Select a good reader; request pupils to imitate. 

(c) Teacher illustrates how a sentence should be 
read. 

2. The teacher should illustrate and define difficult 
words. 

(a) Illustrate by objects, pictures, drawings and 
diagrams. 

3. No definitions should be given of those words 
whose meaning can be inferred from the context. 



MAKE HASTE SLOWLY. 27 

4. Every piece should be carefully studied before it 
is read aloud. 

Remarks. — Reading should not be a mere mechani- 
cal exercise. The end of reading is not to give vocal 
utterance to a succession of words, but to give expres- 
sion to thought and feeling. 

Reading is the most important subject taught in 
school. It is especially important that it be thoroughly 
taught in the primary classes. The " sing-song drawl " 
and " nasal twang," which so often prevail in the school- 
room, should be avoided. 

Almost all children can be taught to read well; they 
imitate, unconsciously and naturally, the voices of their 
playmates. 

Teachers too Ambitious. 

Many of the teachers are too ambitious in one direc- 
tion : that is, to promote pupils to higher books when 
they are not qualified. 

This is a great mistake. Perhaps three-fifths of the 
pupils of our country are reading in books which they 
do not understand, or in which they take no interest; 
this is one of the principal causes of mechanical read- 
ing; through this error in judgment the pupils have ac- 
quired a drawling way, a lifeless, mechanical style. 

Reformation Needed. 

I am glad to admit that a reformation has begun in 
this department of instruction, but it will need the con- 
stant and varied efforts of teachers and parents for 
years in order to overcome the effects that have already 
resulted from past negligence. 



28 READING. 

Means of Improvement. 

Let the teacher select (from some book or magazine) 
a story which he will be sure shall interest the pupils. 

Let him give the book containing it to a pupil, asking 
him to read the story over a few times, to become 
familiar with it ; and at or near the close of school, let 
the pupil read it aloud to his schoolmates. 

As he reads, do not discourage him by frequent inter- 
ruptions, but occasionally, when he relapses into a 
drawl, repeat the passage, kindly, in a better way, and 
ask him to notice and imitate your manner. 

When he has finished, read to them yourself some 
other good story, and let your style be worthy of imita- 
tion. 

Reading Sentences. 

Let the standard for good reading be its resemblance 
to good conversation. 

The pupils may be led to attend to the thoughts ex- 
pressed, by requiring them to find out what the sen» 
tences tell without reading them aloud. The teacher 
may aid them by proceeding in a manner similar to the 
following : Request the class to study the first sen- 
tence, and each member to raise a hand when able to 
tell what the sentence is about. Call upon different 
pupils to state, in their own language, what the sen- 
tence tells ; in this way they Avill readily learn to read 
with easy conversational tones. 

Distinct Enunciation. 
Special care should be taken in this step to train 



THE TEACHER SHOULD READ WELL. 29 

pupils in habits of clearness and distinctness of enunci- 
ation ; also to read in an easy, speaking voice. Over- 
come the faults in reading by taking up one kind at a 
time, and continue the practice until the pupils clearly 
perceive the fault and take proper means to correct it. 

The Teacher should be a Good Reader. 

As a requisite essential to success, the teacher of 
reading should be a good reader. With proper man- 
agement it is a very easy matter to make children read 
well, and even the teacher that is a tolerable reader may 
teach pupils to read. That children have learned to 
read under such teachers I am willing to admit, because 
the fact is evident ; but that they have been taught by 
their masters I do not admit, for it is impossible for any 
person to teach well what he does not understand. 

If a child has sometimes learned to read under an in- 
competent instructor, it has been, not because of 
the teacher, but in spite of him ; and the question is, 
not how much he has learned, but how much would he 
have learned had the teacher been qualified to teach 
him. 

Difficult Words. 

The young pupil's knowledge of the meaning of 
words is limited. One object of reading is to increase 
the knowledge of words. No definition should be given 
of those words whose meaning can be inferred from the 
context. See page 26. Recourse should be had to a 
dictionary only when the pupil cannot think out the 
meaning for himself. 



30 READING. 

The child learns the meaning of words by hearing 
them used — seldom by formal definition. 

The teacher may impress the idea by resorting to ob- 
jects, this is the natural way. Sometimes pictures may 
be at hand to throw light upon the word ; again, a 
drawing may be given at the board to illustrate the 
meaning of the word. 

Defining Words in Primary Classes. 

In no case should a definition be committed to mem- 
ory and mechanically recited. 

The meaning should be inferred from the context, and 
the pupil requested to use the word correctly in a short 
sentence. 

Let the pupil tell what the word means in his own 
language. 

A definition is a general truth, a deduction ; children 
should be taught primary truths, and, as their reason 
develops, deduce the definitions, rules and principles. 
Develop correct ideas, then give definitions. We must 
not encourage teachers to require pupils to commit the 
definitions to memory in the primary reading books. 
But we would insist that the pupils understand the 
meaning of the words used. 

"Mind the Pauses." 

Teachers sometimes instruct pupils to stop and count 
"one" at a comma, "one, two," at a semicolon ; this 
leads to a mechanical, unnatural style of reading. First 
attend to the reading of sentences, and lead the pupils 
to see how the pauses aid in understanding the mean- 



QUALITIES OF THE VOICE. 31 

ing. Do not teach reading as if attention to "pauses" 
were the chief object to be attained. 

Reciting definitions of pauses is not only useless but 
leads to great waste of time. Teach the use of the 
pauses in the lesson, instead of the definition of them. 
A few teachers pay no attention to the explanation of 
the words, but turn their attention almost entirely to 
the^ names and the pronunciation; important points, to 
be sure, but by no means the life-giving elements of 
good reading. 

Qualities of the Voice. 

Pure Tone — It is a clear, full and cheerful tone. It is 
the language of common conversation. 

Rotund Tone — It is the pure tone, rounded, deepened 
and intensified. It is the language of sublimity, grand- 
eur, awe and reverence. 

Aspirate Tone — It is whispered utterance. It is the 
language of hate, fear and secresy. 

Guttural Tone — It is the sepulchral tone and has its 
resonance in the throat. It is the language of hate, 
rage and contempt. 

Pectoral Tone — It is low, pure tone. It is the language 
of deep feeling, sorrow. 

Falsetto Tone — It is a very high tone. It is the lan- 
guage of irritability, etc. 

Emphasis. 
Definition. 

1. A particular stress of voice given to certain words, 
or parts of a discourse; a distinctive utterance of words 
specially significant. 



32 BEADING. 

What Constitute the Emphatic Word or Words. 

1. A new idea or fact, one now presented for the^rs^ 
time, constitutes the emphatic word or words. 

2. That which presents no new or dominant fact or 
thought, is the unemphatic clause. 

Characteristics that Mark Unemphatic Clauses. 

1. Repetition. 

2. Anticipation. 
♦ 3. Sequence. 

4. Subordination. 

5. Knowledge beforehand. 

Rules in Reading. 

Do not require children to commit the rules to mem- 
ory in reading. They are hindrances instead of helps. 
If the teachers know how to read, those aids in which 
many school-books abound are worse than useless, 
because positively injurious. 

The competent teacher needs but two rules by which 
to be guided in teaching the pupils to read: 

First — Make the pupils understand what is to be read. 

Second — Require them to read naturally. To expect 
a child to read what it does not understand is unreason- 
able, and yet nothing is more common. 

It is idle to put marks, rules and directions, whether 
by words or characters, into books intended to be read 
by children, for the reason that they seldom or never 
use them. 



READING. 33 

Special Preparation for Reading. 

The teacher should carefully study the reading lesson; 
should be familiar with the pronunciation of every word, 
including its literal and its received meaning. He 
should give the pupils the history of the author and 
some of his prominent characteristics, — this will add to 
the interest. He should awaken thought in the minds 
of the pupils, — this will secure interest. It matters not 
how simple the lesson may be, previous preparation is 
indispensable. Previous study will add new power and 
generate better methods, by means of which success 
will be insured. The teacher will become independent, 
self-reliant, and a " law unto himself." 

Intermediate Reading. 

I Directions. 
1. Teach and train the pupils to understand: 

(a) The prominent objects mentioned; 

(b) The promiuent facts mentioned concerning 
the object; 

(c) What they read, so as be to able to tell the 
story, or the principal facts in the lesson; 

(d) The connected thought, so as to express it 
orally and written. 

II. Cautions. 

1. Attend to one subject of criticism at a time, and 
require pupils to correct errors. 

2. Practice on one sentence at a time. 

3. S -e that all the pupils understand the thought, and 
are able to express it. 

4. Examine the subject carefully before reading. 



34 READING. 

III. Results. 

The pupils in the Intermediate Classes in Reading 
should be able — 

1. To pronounce the words accurately. 

2. To define the words. 

3. To understand the subject-matter. 

4. To explain the language, 

5. To account for marks of punctuation. 

6. To point out what is true, beautiful and good in 
the sentiment. 

1. To show the manner of delivery, and give reason 
for it. 

Remarks. — The number of those who can be properly 
called good readers in our schools, is small; but how 
large is the number who can read quite indifferently, or 
very poorly. 

As a general thing it must be admitted that reading 
has not been well taught in our schools. It has received 
formal attention and frequent inattention Time enough 
is given to the exercise, but not enough attention. 

Intellectual Exercise. 

The elocutionary part of reading should receive 
but little attention in the intermediate classes. With 
so many pupils under your training, it cannot be 
expected that you will go into all the minutia of 
elocutionary drill. Your aim must be to teach well 
what you undertake to teach. You cannot even 
hope to make all your pupils accomplished elocu- 
tionists, but you can make them good and intelli- 
gent readers. When you find a pupil that takes 



A MODEL LESSON. 35 

to elocution it may be well to encourage it, but 
not to the neglect nor the expense of other subjects of 
instruction. It may be asked, what is good reading ? 
I call that good reading when a person reads distinctly, 
giving the sense with such intonation and emphasis as 
to be pleasant to the hearer, and in such a manner as to 
be easily heard and readily understood. 

Take, for example, the following beautiful selection, 
and see how many pertinent questions may be asked in 
reference to it : 

Nelly. 

Nelly sat under the apple tree, 

And watched the shadows of leaves at play, 
And heard the hum of the honey bee, 

Gathering sweets through the sunny day. 

Nelly's brown hands in her lap were laid ; 

Her head inclined with a gentle grace ; 
A wandering squirrel was not afraid 

To stop and peer in her quiet face. 

Nelly was full of a pure delight, 

Born of the beauty of earth and sky, 

Of the wavering boughs, and the sunshine bright, 
And the snowy clouds that went sailing by. 

Nelly forgot that her dress was old, 

Her hands were rough and her feet were bare ; 

For round her the sunlight poured its gold, 

And her cheeks were kissed by the summer air. 

And the distant hills in their glory lay, 
And soft to her ear came the robin's call : 



36 BEADING. 

'Twas sweet to live on that summer day. 
For the smile of God was over all. 

And Kelly was learning the lesson sweet 
That when the spirit is full of care, 

And we long our father and God to meet, 
We may go to nature, and find him there. 

1. Where did Nelly sit? 

2. What two things did she do ? 

3. What is meant by the leaves at play ? 

4. What were the bees doing ? 

5. What is said of Nelly's hands ? 

6. What is said of her head ? 

7. What is said of the squirrel ? 

8. Of what was Nelly full ? 

9. What is meant by being full of pure delight? 

10. Of what four things was it born ? 

11. What is meant by being born of these things ? 

12. What did Nelly forget ? 

13. Why did she forget these things? 

14. What is meant by the sunlight pouring its gold ? 

15. What is meant by kissed by the summer air? 

16. What is said of the distant hills? 

17. What is meant by the phrase "in their glory 
lay " ? 

18. What is said of the robin ? 

19. Why was it sweet to live on that summer day ? 

20. What lesson was Nelly learning ? 

21. What is the meaning of gathering? Inclined? 
Peer? Boughs? Nature? 

22. Make sentences in which those words in some of 
their forms shall be used correctly. 



RHETORICAL DIVISIONS. 3? 

23. Write a short composition about Nelly. 

Directions. — The piece is descriptive and should be 
so read as to give the hearer a clear idea of the scenes 
described. State each thing mentioned as though you 
were telling some person what you had seen. 

The frequent or occasional study of reading lessons 
in this manner will be attended with two advantages. 
The pupils will read them better, for they will have a 
sympathy for the author, and a more intelligent percep- 
tion of the meaning. 

The answering of the question will prove very ser- 
viceable, by unfolding the sense of the piece, and thus 
enabling one to read it more understandingly. It will 
produce thought, and whenever we produce thought we 
secure interest. 

In intermediate classes constant attention should be 
given to punctuation, accent, inflection, emphasis and 
correct pronuciation. 

Explanations of historical, biographical or scientific 
allusions, should be given by the teacher and reviewed 
in subsequent recitation. 

Rhetorical Division of Language. 

{ a. Letters. 
| b. Dialogues. 
{ 1. Prose, \ c. History. 

| d. Essays. 

4 n •.> t ( e. Orations, etc. 

A. Composition. \ and > p f . i 

| b. Lyric. 

2. Poetry. c. Epic. 

| d. Dramatic. 

I o. Elegy. 



38 READING. 

( 1. Humorous. 

B. Subject Matter. •] 2. Pathetic. 

( 3. Sublime. 

{ 1. Narrative. 

C. Discourse. - •< 2. Descriptive. 

( 3. Didactic. 

Note. — The teacher in the higher classes should 
train the pupils on the above. Let them tell the differ- 
ence between prose and poetry; the subject matter and 
the discourse. 

General Remarks on Reading. 

No subject is of more imj^ortance than how to teach 
Reading understandingly. Good reading is calculated 
to develop the mind, the body, and the imagination. 
Although so important, yet how sadly neglected is the 
power of reading, Teachers are able to give the defi- 
nitions of Arithmetic, Geography and Grammar, but 
few can give an intelligent definition of Reading. 

Elocution is the art of speaking so as to be heard, so 
as to be felt, so as to impress. The first essential is to 
speak or read so as to be heard distinctly. Never speak 
above or below your natural voice; if you do so, the 
effect will be lost. The three great rules that all should 
observe in reading or speaking are: " Be sure you have 
something to say; be careful how you say it; and stop 
when you are done." Speak so that the listener may 
understand you; speak so as to be felt, hence be in 
earnest; if you do not feel what you say, you cannot 
expect your hearers to have any feeling. 



CORRECT SPECIAL FAULTS. 39 

How You Mat Teach so as to Carry Out These 

Conditions. 

We answer, study so as thoroughly to understand 
what you teach. If you do not know what is required, 
you are not qualified to teach, and in order to become 
qualified you must listen to good examples. 

Attend to Faults. 

If you have a fault, attend to it, overcome it by 
practice. Much time must be taken in correcting bad 
habits of reading, but you must take the time. And 
whatever you do, be sure to teach the pupils to do it in 
the right way. If the teacher wishes to succeed he 
must learn how intonation and articulation are to be 
taught. Before he can teach it he must learn it. It 
can only be acquired through study. 

Rules in books might as well be omitted ; correct 
reading must be taught by example. The object of 
teaching reading is to make good readers. Before good 
reading and good speaking can be taught it is necessary 
to learn how to articulate distinctly and pronounce cor- 
rectly. If you are careless in one single point, your 
pupils will be careless not only on that point but on 
others. 

In reading you must give each sound its true value. 
The requirements in reading are two-fold : 

First — To express rightly what you read ; and 

Second — To do this pleasantly and naturally. A per- 
fect understanding of what you read is the foundation; 
you must understand the thoughts of the author and 
make the thoughts your own. 



40 READING. 

It is the exception to find good readers in our 
schools ; the reason is because pupils are not required 
to study the lesson as in other branches. 

Expression. 

This adds force, meaning, beauty and power to the 
passage. After the pupils can speak distinctly, they 
should be taught to express the sense, to give the exact 
meaning. In no other way can this be taught than 
through study on the part of the pupils. They must 
read and think. 

Posture. 

Pupils should be taught how to stand, and they 
should not be allowed to utter a word until they as- 
sume a position to give full force to their utterance ; 
they should not be allowed to appear awkward. 

Do not allow your pupils to mumble words, smother 
sounds, and destroy the sense of a passage. 

The position should be perfectly easy, natural and 
graceful ; the posture should indicate the sentence to 
be spoken. Insist upon your pupils always taking an 
easy, graceful and gentlemanly or ladylike position in 
reading or speaking. 

Breath. 

Another important point is to know how to breathe 
properly. It is well to exercise the lungs before we 
commence to read. The power of the reader or speaker 
consists in having perfect control of his breathing, so as 
to utter his words in the proper and most effective man- 
ner. It is only when you have perfect control of the 
breathing that you can give full expression to words 
and sentences. 



HOW TO SUCCEED. 41 

How to Gain Success in Reading. 

The surest way to attain success in reading is to be- 
gin to develop thought. Reading may be reduced to a 
few general rules, namely : You must commence at the 
right place — at the beginning ; go in the right direc- 
tion ; have a high standard in view ; be perfectly nat- 
ural — cultivate by all means naturalness. If the pupils 
have unnatural tones, make them repeat after you sen- 
tences and whole passages. This will insure correct 
pronunciation, distinctness of utterance and expression. 

Let me caution you against placing dependence upon 
rules of inflection of the voice given in reading books. 
All that you need is fully to understand the thought ; 
when you have the thought fully, you will know all 
about inflection of the voice. If a person cannot trans- 
late what he reads into his own language, he most as- 
suredly does not understand it. If you cannot bring 
out in your own language the full meaning of the les- 
son, you are not the one to teach, and you should either 
adopt some other avocation, or go through a rigid 
course of reading. 

A great deal of teaching in reading is a positive in- 
jury to schools, and all because the teacher does not 
know how to teach. "Practice makes perfect ;" rap- 
idity and correctness are attained only through fre- 
quent repetition. No one ever arrives at distinction by 
sitting with arms folded ; you must be willing to think, 
to exercise, to labor. It is not an easy thing to become 
a good reader, it is only acquired through practice — 
continual practice. There is no other way than through 
practice. 



42 READING. 

The following rules are taken from " Kidd's Elocu- 
tion." They should be carefully studied and prac- 
tised : 

First — Understand well what is read. 

Second — See to it that pupils never read without ful- 
filling the conditions of proper position and posture. 

Make them take the position God intended them to 
take ; train, not teach ; there is a difference between 
the two. 

Third — Insist upon frequent and natural breathing. 
Good breathing is essential to health. 

Fourth — Reach the heart of the pupil. This is done 
by interesting them, by making them understand what 
they read. 

Fifth — Cultivate a perfectly easy, distinct and natural 
voice, avoid all labored efforts ; let the voice come out 
full. Let pronunciation be correct, inflection natural ; 
give the best models, but never rules. Make pupils re- 
jjeat the pronunciation of words they are in the habit 
of mis-pronouncing. Modulation and intonation should 
be varied but always natural. 

Sixth — Have your pupils speak with naturalness. If 
the subject be understood any one will speak naturally. 
Train them to speak by the highest standard they pos- 
sess. 

Seventh — Be in earnest. If the pupil has not an earn- 
est manner, it proves that he does not understand his 
subject. 



mechanical reading. 43 

These Conditions are Absolutely Necessary to 
Success in Reading. 

Teacher, whatever else you may teach, do not con- 
sider the reading exercise an unimportant one. Teach 
and train the pupils to be readers. It is the art of arts, 
and in it are the germs of growth and development. 

We read in the Bible at the eighth chapter of Nehe- 
miah, eighth verse, how they used to read in the olden 
times: 

" So they read in the book in the law of God dis- 
tinctly, and gave the sense, and caused them to under- 
stand the reading." 

There are different kinds of reading, which are also 
often confounded; mechanical reading; intelligent read- 
ing; and intellectual reading. 

Mechanical reading, per se, is no reading at all; it is 
but a form of voice -training. It may include pronun- 
ciation, articulation, enunciation, inflection, tone, pause, 
harmony, rhythm, and emphasis. A child may learn 
every one of these, in a foreign language, — learn them 
to perfection, if he be well drilled in them by means of 
directions and imitation, and yet not understand one 
word of what he reads while he gives them. 

An intelligent reader is one who understands what 
he reads, who takes in the author's thought. There 
are various degrees of intelligent reading. One per- 
son takes in the author's thought very vaguely, 
another much more clearly, another quite clearly and 
definitely. It is not possible for a young child to be 



44 teteADittfc, 

more than an intelligent reader, but as he grows older 
he should become more; yet how many adults there 
are who never get beyond the child's power of reading. 
Take, for instance,- the well-informed man who never 
will be wise; he is eminently an intelligent reader, 
but there is no hope for him that he will ever become 
an intellectual reader. 

Intellectual reading is not only a taking in, clearly 
and definitely, of the author's meaning, but it is also 
a ready recognition of the relation of that meaning, 
a prompt assimilation of it, and a consequent growth. 
This is the kind of reading that reigns in the student's 
den and the philosopher's study. That man who has 
the original power, or the acquired habit, — w 7 hich is 
often more than an equivalent for the original power, — 
to grasp readily and clearly the meaning of what he 
reads, is always one whom all others envy. And yet 
this power, valuable beyond calculation, may be given 
to each child in our schools, if we can but find the right 
way to secure it for him. 



The question then is: How shall we train our children 
so that they shall become not only intelligent but 
intellectual readers ? — so that they shall become not 
only intellectual silent readers, but also accomplished 
oral readers ? 

By assigning to the lesson in voice-training all 
those exercises which pertain to voice-culture and 
discipline of the organs, with drill in pronunciation 
and a consideration of emphasis and pauses, illus- 
trated by mistakes taken from yesterday's lesson and 
difficulties in to-day's, w r e shall relieve the reading 



t>0 NOT PERMIT INTERRUPTION. 45 

lesson proper of the necessity of taking note of all that 
machinery which produces effect, and leave the teacher 
and class time and opportunity to study the thought 
the passage contains, and to give it a free and natural 
expression. Let it be understood by the class as well as 
the teacher, that the reading lesson should be a clear, 
clean-cut process of thought carried on to expression, 
and should not be interrupted by continued, trivial and 
harrassing corrections. What is more painful than to 
see a child rise in his class, full of the thought the pas- 
sage contains, confident of his power to give it good 
expression, his eye a-kindle and his cheeks aglow, and 
then to see him suddenly brought to a blank stand-still 
by a dozen upraised hands and snapping fingers, be- 
cause, forsooth, he has omitted an " a," a " the," or mis- 
called some simple word he knew quite well, or skipped 
some useless comma ? 

Where such practices are allowed, the reading lesson 
becomes a mere game in pronunciation, and a correct 
handling of the voice according to rules. Such games 
are good to make the children keen-sighted, quick- 
thoughted, and correct ; but their place is not in the 
reading-lesson, and if we keep them there we shall go 
on forever teaching only words, words, words. 

Let us have first the thought, then the expression, 
and last and least, mechanical defects. Better that the 
thought should be full-born, and clothed in garments 
with here and there a rent, than that it should be still- 
born and the garments without a flaw. 

As in language the thought is the root of which the 
word is the blossom, so in reading, an understanding of 



46 READING. 

the author's meaning is the root of which oral reading 
is the blossom. If, then, we find our blossoms de- 
fective, it behooves us to look to the condition of the 
roots. 

But what method will help us here ? How can we 
make sure that a child understands what he reads ? 
Children imitate so easily, and habit counterfeits na- 
ture so closely, how can we be sure that we are not 
misled ? Only by studying the lesson with children ; 
only by having before every reading-lesson a language- 
lesson upon the subject-matter of the reading ; only by 
compelling the children, by means of questions, to think, 
to reason, and to express: to express the thoughts of the 
lesson, first in their own words, and then in the words 
of the book ; and, whenever the subject- matter may 
be, from any cause whatsover, vague to the children's 
minds, by illustrating it with objects, with pictures, — 
printed pictures, and outline pictures drawn upon the 
black-board, and with what the English training-schools 
call " picturing out words." 



f 



HONICS. 



Till recently this important subject had received but 
little attention in the public* schools of the country. 
Why it was so long neglected, when it adds so much 
beauty to expression, is a curious problem. 

The object of teaching this subject should be — 

First — To train the organs of hearing so that the 
children may readily distinguish the sounds heard in 
speaking and reading. 

Second — To train the organs of hearing so that the 
pupils may learn to produce the sounds correctly in 
using language. To acquire an articulation which 
shall be at once accurate and tasteful, it is necessary: 

1. To obtain an exact kuowledge of the elementary 
sounds of the language. 

2. To learn the appropriate place of these sounds. 

3. To apply this knowledge constantly in conversing, 
reading and speaking, with a view to correct every 
deviation from propriety which we may detect in 
expressing them. 

A good articulation is not to be acquired in a day, 
nor from a few lessons. Practice should begin with 
the alphabet, and continue through the whole course 
of education; and even then there will remaiu room for 
improvement. 



48 PHONICS. 

Great care should be taken in giving these lessons, 
that the class repeat each exercise until all the pupils 
can make every sound and combination which it con- 
tains, readily and perfectly. 

The teacher should make the sounds, and then require 
the pupils to imitate them. The pupils should stand 
or sit erect, and use the natural tones of the voice. 
Only one or two sounds should be taken for a lesson. 

The exercise should not continue more than five 
minutes; it may be introduced in the reading or 
spelling exercise, or the whole school may join in it. 

Tell the children " to open the mouth and move the 
lips," to speak distinctly and to enunciate every sound 
perfectly. Time should not be wasted in the endeavor 
to teach children definitions or descriptions of the 
various sounds of the letters. The chief aim should be 
to train the organs of hearing to acuteness, and the 
organs of speech to flexibility and accuracy. 

Notation Marks ok Diacritical Signs. 

The pupils should be taught the correct sounds and 
the signification of the different marks. All the vowels 
and many of the consonants have marks to distinguish 
their sounds. 

After a sound is learned the teacher should write the 
letter on the board with its proper mark. The pupils 
should be required to copy and reproduce every exer- 
cise. Let the drill be thorough. 

Tell the pupils that when a short horizontal line — 
called the macron — is placed above the vowels it indicates 



SUGGESTIONS. 49 

the long sound; that a short curved line with the curve 
downward — called a breve — placed above the vowels 
indicates the short sound; that two dots placed above 
the letter a indicate the Italian sound, etc. 

We find but very few teachers who are able to give 
all the sounds of the English language correctly, and 
many are unable to tell the kind of a mark or sign that 
indicates a certain sound. 

It requires study and practice. We need not expect 
distinct speaking so long as we neglect this important 
art. 

Suggestions. 

1. Train the organs of hearing to distinguish readily 
and accurately the different sounds of language. 

2. Train the organs of speech to produce these sounds 
with ease and accuracy. 

3. Train the pupils to the correction of faults of 
enunciation and pronunciation in reading and speaking. 

4. Train pupils in every lesson upon the elements. 

5. Master the analysis before you attempt to teach it. 

6. Let the drill be accurate. 



For full directions in teaching this important subject, the 
author refers to his book called " Practical Phonics: A com- 
prehens.ve study of Pronunciation, forming a complete guide to 
the study of the Elementary Sounds of the English Language, and 
containing 3000 words of difficult prounciation, with diacritical 
marks according to Webster's Dictionary." Price 75 cts. 



PELLING. 



INTRODUCTION. 

It cannot be denied that the orthography of the Eng- 
lish language is difficult. In a general way there are no 
principles governing it ; but few rules can be called to 
mind, and these have so many exceptions that they are 
of little use. 

There are only three rules that I have found of prac- 
tical value : 

1. " Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant before an addi- 
tion beginning with a vowel. 

2. " The diphthong ' ie ' is generally used after other 
consonants than c, which is followe< 1 by ' ei.' 

3. Words ending in final " y," preceded by a vowel, 
form their plurals by adding " s." 

It will be seen at once that English spelling must be 
learned to a great extent arbitrarily ; but industry and 
attention will enable any student to master it. 

Results Unsatisfactory. 

Everybody knows how imperfectly spelling accom- 
plishes its purpose ; yet there is no reason why any stu- 



UNSATISFACTORY RESULTS. 51 

dent should habitually spell words badly. Any person 
may learn to spell. 

No teaching of spelling is necessary or useful to per- 
sons who can read and write. If the student would 
learn to spell words let him use words. Let him write 
every day ; and in writing, whenever he shall come to a 
word which he does not certainly know how to spell, let 
him look for it in his dictionary and study its spelling 
and mean in 2. 



■&■ 



Mechanical Spelling. 

Too often the spelling is a mere " parrot exercise," 
in that its results are rapidly lost as soon as the atten- 
tion is given to something else. Inattention is a fruit- 
ful source of ill spelling. Time is wasted upon oral 
spelling, and bad habits are formed by spelling new 
words pupils do not understand. 

Combination of Spelling. 

I should connect spelling and reading with writing 
from the very outset. As soon as the child can pro- 
nounce the alphabet on this plan he will be able to write 
it, and then as he advances he must continue to write 
all the spelling lessons and as much of the reading les- 
sons as time will admit. It is a rare thing to find child- 
ren seven years old able to read a word of manuscript, — 
much less to write well. A little instruction given by 
the teacher each day upon this special study, will make 
the children good penmen in a few weeks' time. This 
is not an impossibility — teachers, try it. It is a very 
valuable help. 



52 



SPELLING. 



During a certain year I pronounced the following 
words to twenty-one Institutes in the State of New 
York, viz : 

accordion, melodeon, alpaca, 

beefsteak, billiards, caterpillar, 

diphtheria, harelip, surcingle, 

occurrence, inflammatory, succotash, 

tranquillity, exaggerate, vaccinate, 

centennial, brilliancy, collision, 

dissipate, tyrannical, valleys, 

lilies, numskull, primer, 
erysipelas. 

The average spelling of the teachers, including pub- 
lic school, union school, academy and normal school 
teachers, was sixty-three per cent. One county stood 
at eighty-five per cent., and one at twenty per cent. 
Only three teachers from the twenty-one counties 
spelled all the words correctly. 

The following list has been given at institutes, with 
similar results : 



judgment, infringement, 

acknowledgement tranquillity, 



bilious, 


lilies, 


vying, 


halos, 


privilege, 


licentiate, 


intercede, 


supersede, 


inflammation, 


quizzical, 


mucilage, 


millenium, 



abridgment, 

dissyllable, 

eying, 

inseparable, 

conscientious, 

sacrilegious, 

contrariwise, 

metallic. 



directions and cautions. 53 

Oral Spelling. 

I. Directions. 

1. Require the pupil to pronounce — 

(a) The ivord accurately before spelling ; 

(b) The letters accurately ; 

(c) The syllables accurately ; 

(d) The word accurately after spelling ; 

(e) The words of the succeeding lesson accu- 
rately before study. 

2. Require the pupil to name everything necessary 
to the correct ivriting or printing of the word, as the 
capital letter, hyphen, apostrophe, etc. 

3. Require the pupils to copy the words of the 
succeeding lessonn several times before spelling. 

4. Let every fifth exercise be a review. 

5. Require misspelled words to be ivritten cor- 
rectly. 

6. Rcvieiv often and advance slowly. 

II. Cautions. 

1. The teacher should — 

(a) Pronounce the word only once. 

(b) Never repeat a syllable. 

(c) Not permit the pupil to repeat a syllable. 

(d) Require pupils to divide one syllable from 
another by a pause. 

(e) Give no undue emphasis to unaccented, 
syllables. 



54 SPELLING. 

(f) Forbid the pupil to try the second time on 
a word. 

(g) Explain neiv words. 

III. Results. 

1. The correct spelling of words. 

2. The correct pronunciation of words. 

Remarks. — In teaching Spelling, the instructor 
should aim to give interest to the exercise by frequently 
varying the mode of recitation. But whatever course 
is pursued, the following directions should be strictly 
adhered to: 

a. The word should be pronounced distinctly; just as 
it would be pronounced by a good reader or a good 
speaker. In giving out the words to a class teachers 
sometimes commit the error of departing from the ordi- 
nary pronunciation, for the sake of indicating the 
orthography. No undue emphasis or prolongation of the 
utterances of a syllable should be given by the teacher. 

h. The pupil should spell once only on a word; as all 
beyond will be merely guessing. 

For employment between recitations the children 
should be permitted and encouraged, and required and 
compelled, to write all the exercises they read or spell 
upon their slates. 

Importance of Written Spelling. 

The best way to study a spelling lesson is to require 
the pupils to write it several times on their slates. The 
practice of requiring pupils to study the lesson a given 



WRITTEN SPELLING. 55 

number of times only teaches them to hurry over their 
study, and not to study to any purpose. 

It is not the number of times a lesson has been 
studied that should be considered the mark of effort, 
but the ability to spell every word in the lesson. 

Importance op Teaching Writing. 

There is no reason why every child in every school 
should not be a good penman at a very early age. 

The advantage of this acquisition to the children can- 
not be overrated; for, besides the mechanical skill, the 
child has the means of constant employment which will 
keep him from idleness and mischief, and the energetic 
teacher can make this skill bear upon almost every exercise 
in other branches of instruction. 

Written Spelling. 
I. Directions. 

1. Preparation for the lesson. 

(a) Pronounce the word accurately. 

(b) Use it in the construction of a sentence. 

(c) Define it. 

(d) Write a sentence containing it. 

2. Materials — Book, pen and ink. 

3. Require the pupils to write the word neatly, as 
soon as pronounced. 

4. At the close of the written exercise, the teacher, 
or some pupil, should spell the word orally. 

5. The pupil should check the misspelled words. 

6. Every misspelled word, and word omitted, should 
be written correctly in the Appendix, with its number 
and the number of the column. 



56 SPELLING. 

7. All blanks, letters or words erased, inserted, writ- 
ten over, or written indistinctly, should be considered ns 
errors. 

8. The teacher should examine the pupil's work, and 
keep a record of the scholarship. 

9. Begin all words with small letters, except proper 
names. 

II. Cautions. 

1. The teacher should give sufficient time to the ex- 
ercise. 

2. The direction number eight must be adhered to 
strictly; any violation will be counted the same as a 
misspelled word. 

3. If words are found unchecked, they should be 
maked with a cipher. 

4. Every word which the student checks for himself 
will deduct one; every word checked with a cipher will 
deduct five; any correction whatever made in the col- 
umn will deduct ten. 

Remarks. — " The old adage, ' Eyes are better than 
ears,' nowhere holds good with greater force than in 
learning to spell." Familiarity with words as written, 
such as will give the knowledge of all the letters 
and their proper position, is necessary to the power of 
writing them correctly. Such familiarity is obtained 
only from frequently seeing or writing them. The 
only way to produce words accurately is to make 
them familiar to the eye; hence the well-known fact 
that persons who read much, as compositors, or write 
much, as copyists, invariably spell correctly; hence 
also the common practice, when people are in doubt 



oliAI SPELLING; 5*7 

between two forms of words, to write them both, when 
the eye instantly decides on the right thing. 

Value of Oral Spelling. 

Spelling is the right formation of words with their 
proper letters. Spelling is either oral or written. Oral 
spelling does not give the ability to write words cor- 
rectly ; but it must not from this fact be deemed a use- 
less exercise. Long used as a basis of learning to read, 
and still clung to by many, notwithstanding the discov- 
ery of a better method, there must be something in it. 
It has already been shown that its special claim of giv- 
ing the learner the powers of the letters, so that he 
may pronounce new words for himself, cannot be al- 
lowed. What it did do, was to make familiar to the 
ear words that otherwise have been altogether strange, 
and sufficiently distinguishable by the eye to enable the 
learner to recognize them again when met with in his 
reading lessons. Other reasons maybe assigned for the 
tenacity with which the old practice of setting spelling 
lessons has been clung to. It found favor with parents 
as furnishing some school work at home. And. it found 
favor with teachers, as giving the only means with the 
younger children, or with poor scholars, of forming 
those habits of attention, application, perseverence and 
retention which are the characteristic features of a sys- 
tem of tasks. 

Discovery of Mistakes. 

The detection of every mistake with least loss of time 
is of the first importance. Careful examination of each 



58 SPELLING. 

slate by the teacher is most likely to secure this, but it 
is open to the fatal objection that it occupies much 
time and leaves the class idle. In some schools monitors 
are appointed to examine the slates and to correct the 
mistakes. This, apart from the difficulty of getting 
properly qualified monitors, is objectionable, as yielding 
the monitors no adequate return for their long and irk- 
some task, to which must be added the possibility of 
unfaithfulness. The plan of allowing the children to 
inspect each other's slates is open to serious objections, 
not the least of which is the distrust it seems to imply. 
Sometimes the children compare their slates with the 
lesson in the book, or written on the black-board ; a 
plan w T hich has the advantages of throwing the labor on 
the child, and of having the corrections made at the 
same time : all that is needed being a vigilant over- 
sight, to see that it is faithfully done. But the method 
which to our mind is the best, is to dictate but one or 
two sentences, and then to have each sentence spelled 
through, either by the teacher or by the scholars in turn, 
every mistake being underlined. 

Corrections. 

The correction of mistakes should appeal to the eye, 
not to the ear. Pains should be taken to ascertain the 
cause of any common defect. For this purpose the word 
should be written on the black board, and alongside of 
it the correct form; the two should be compared and 
the cause of the mistake discovered. Often this will be 
a lesson on the structure of a class of words, and proba- 
bly prevent similar mistakes afterwards. After this has 



METHODS. 59 

been done, the whole class should write the word in its 
correct form, and then the words should be dictated 
afresh ; if any now have mistakes, they should be re- 
quired to write the words three or six times, according 
to the degree of carelessness shown. Sometimes it may 
be well to direct the children themselves to write cor- 
rectly the words they have underlined, this making 
them attentive while the words are being spelled. But, 
as a general thing, this is open to the objection that it 
appeals to the eye, and that it does not occupy the 
children who have spelled it correctly. 

Methods in Spelling. 

I. Constructive Method. 

1. The teacher should request the pupils : — 

(a) To name a few familiar words. 

(b) To construct with block or card letters. 

(c) To spell the words by the sound of the letters. 

(d) To copy the words on their slates. 

(e) To tell the silent letters. 

(/) To spell the words by the name of the letters. 
(g) To use each word correctly in a sentence. 

II Objective Method. 

1. The teacher should request the pupils : — 

(a) To bring to school a number of objects of the 

same kind. 

(b) To examine them carefully. 

(c) To name the parts. 

(d) To spell and write the words. 

(e) To tell the uses of the parts. 



60 SPELLING. 

(/) To introduce the word into a sentence. 
(g) To name the properties of the parts. 
(h) To write a short composition, reproducing the 
words. 

General Plan. 

I. Object. 
IT. General properties. 

III. Parts. 

IV. Properties of parts. 
V. Uses of parts. 

VI. General uses. 

Different Methods of Spelling. 

First Method. 

Spelling and defining. 

1. Assign an object to every pupil. 

2. Pupils find the meaning. 

3. Pupils name the parts, qualities, uses, etc. 

4. Pupils write a short composition, reproducing the 

words. 

Second Method. 

1. Teacher writes a certain number of words on the 
board, requiring the pupils to copy. 

2. The pupils learn to define them. 

3. The pupils use them in composition of a sentence. 

Third Method. 

1. Require -the pupils to spell the names of : — 

(a) Countries. 

(b) States. 

(c) Counties. 

(d) Cities, 



METHODS. 61 

(e) Towds. 

( f) Divisions of Land . 

(g) Divisions of Water. 
(h) Classes of Objects. 
(*) Occupations. 

(/) Animals, Minerals, etc. 
(k) Trees. 
(I) Fruits. 
(m) Flowers, 
(w) Vegetables. 

Fourth Method — Dictation. 

1. The teacher should have a Dictation Exercise 
once a week. 

2. Dictate complete statements to the pupils. 

/. Directions for the Above Exercise. 

1. Write your full name on the paper ; punctuate it. 

2. Number the sentences. 

3. Construct every letter accurately. 

4. Do not erase letters or words. 

5. Do not insert letters or words. 

0. Do not write over letters or words. 

7. Do not prompt, or be prompted. 

8. Use capital letters correctly. 

9. Use punctuation marks correctly. 
10. Cross the "t's" and dot the " i's " 

(a) Teacher or pupil writes the correct forms on 

the board. 
(5) Those who make mistakes in spelling, or in any 

of the directions, are required to correct 

them. 



62 SPELLING. 

(c) Teacher carefully examines the papers ; and 

(d) Finds the per cent. 

Remarks. — However thorough the drill in spelling 
may be from the lessons of the speller and reader, every 
teacher should have frequent and copious exercises in 
spelling words from other sources. These should be 
words in common use, chosen as far as possible from 
the range of the pupil's observation, including the new 
words that arise in object lessons, in geography, arith- 
metic and grammar. The more difficult of these words 
should be written in columns on the board, and studied 
and reviewed with the same care as lessons from the 
speller and reader. Failures in spelling these words 
should be marked as errors, the same as failures in any 
other lessons. 

Various Modes of Conducting Exercises in 

Spelling. 

1. Read a short sentence distinctly, and require every 
word to be spelled by the class, — the first pupil pro- 
nouncing and spelling the first word, the next pupil the 
second, and so on until all the words in the sentence 
have been spelled. (An excellent exercise ; it demands 
attention.) 

2. It will be well in oral spelling to make all the 
members of the class responsible for the accurate spell- 
ing of each and every word. 

If the first member of the class misspells the word 
given to him, let the teacher proceed and give out the 
next word, without intimating whether the first word 
was correctly or incorrectly spelled. 

If the second pupil thinks the first word was not 



STUDY DIFFICULT WORDS. 63 

spelled correctly, he will spell it instead of the one 
given him, and so on through the class, each being ex- 
pected to correct any error that may have been com- 
mitted. If the first pupil spells a word incorrectly, and 
no one corrects it, let all be charged with a failure. 
This mode will amply compensate for its frequent 
adoption. 

Require Study on the Difficult Words. 

Two-thirds of the words in the English language 
need but little study. The remainder can be mastered 
only by study. The pupils should be urged to study 
the difficult words. 

3. Another mode of conducting the exercise of spell- 
ing is the following, and we may add that for more ad- 
vanced schools it possesses some advantages. 

Let the teacher write legibly on the board twenty 
or more difficult words, and allow them to remain long 
enough to be carefully studied by the school. A few 
minutes before the exercise let all the words be erased 
from the board. Let each pupil provide himself with a 
slip of paper, following the order as directed in the pre- 
vious exercises. The teacher will pronounce the words 
and the pupils will write them. 

After the words have been written, let the slips be 
collected and taken by the teacher, who may himself — 
aided by some of the pupils — examine the slips, and 
mark the words spelled incorrectly. Subsequently, let 
the teacher read the result to the whole school, stating 
the number of errors committed by the several pupils ; 
after which the papers may be returned for correction. 
If there is a good board in the room, a few pupils 
should write the lesson on it. 



64 SPELLING* 

4. An attractive mode, which may answer for oral or 
written spelling, is the following : 

The instructor pronounces a word which is to be 
spelled by the first in the class, who will name immedi- 
ately another, commencing with the final letter of the 
first word which is to be spelled by the next pupil; and 
he in turn will name another word, and so on through 
the class. It will awaken thought and interest. 

5, Another mode which has its advantages is the fol- 
lowing : 

Let the teacher dictate some twenty or twenty-five 
words to the class, requiring the members to write them 
on their slates. These words are to be carefully exam- 
ined and studied by the pupils, who are also to be re- 
quired to incorporate each word in a sentence, which 
shall illustrate its meaning and show that it is under- 
stood by them. 

After these sentences have been read and erased from 
the slates, let the words be dictated again, to be writ- 
ten and examined with special reference to the orthog- 
raphy. 

The teacher should keep a copy of all words dictated 
to the pupils and hold them responsible for the correct 
spelling in review. 

Importance of Spelling. 

Teachers should give close attention to this important 
subject, for truly it has been said, " To spell one's own 
language well is no great credit to him for he ought to 
do it ; but to spell it ill is a disgrace, because it indi- 
cates extremely poor attention and loose scholarship." 



ITS IMPORTANCE. 65 

We have a great number of spelling-books, grammars, 
and other aids, bat with all these poor spellers greatly 
abound. 

One cause of the frequency of poor spelling may be 
found in the neglect with which the spelling lesson is 
treated in schools. It is often crowded into a few min- 
utes and passed over in a very hurried and imperfect 
manner, and if any exercise must be omitted the spell- 
ing lesson is the neglected one. Another cause may be 
found in a feeling, not very uncommon, that spelling is 
undeserving the attention of any but very young 
pupils. 

From the beginning let your pupils understand that 
the spelling lesson will always receive its due share of 
attention, and its due time. Hold your pupils respon- 
sible for the correct spelling of every word at the regular 
recitation and upon reviews. 

As soon as the pupils can write, which, in a well-con- 
ducted school, is about as soon as they can read, special 
instruction in spelling with script letters should be in- 
troduced, and children should be required to write and 
to spell orally every word in their reading, and in all 
other lessons. If accuracy and neatness in every par- 
ticular be required, habits of careful attention w r ill be 
formed. 

The child must be taught to spell correctly before 
twelve years old, as this habit is seldom acquired after 
that age. 

Spelling Used only in Printing and Writing. 

A good speller is one who habitually gives the cor- 
rect form to every word in his written exercises. It is 



66 SPELLING. 

only in printed and written language that correct spell 
ing possesses any value. Oral spelling is not a test of 
accuracy. It is impossible to memorize by their letters 
all the words in our language. If we wish to make 
pupils excellent spellers, we must cultivate the powers 
of observation and memory. If habits of carelessness 
and inaccuracy are allowed to be formed in childhood, 
no ordinary efforts in after life can overcome the defects 
or supply the deficiencies that result from such bad 
habits. 

General Rules for Spelling. 

Rule 1. Write no word unless sure of its orthography 
and signification. 

Rule 2. Consult the dictionary in case of doubt. 

Rule 3. Apply the rules for derivatives. 

Remarks. — Rules for spelling are of but little use in 
primary classes, or in fact in any classes. It may be 
well to memorize them, as they may prove of a little 
use in spelling of derivatives. 

Exercise in Orthoepy. 



'3 



1. sacrifice, 6. torrid. 

2. memoriter, 7. often, 

3. pedagogy, 8. pretty, 

4. equable, 9. finance, 

5. truths, 10. mercy. 

Exercise in Orthoepy, with Diacritical Marks. 

1. sac'nfice, 6. tor'rid, 

2. meimor'iter, 7. often, 

3. p&d'agogy, 8. pretty, 

4. B'quable, 9. fi'nance, 

5. truths, 10. mer'cy. 



RULES AND EXERCISES. 67 

Note. — The teacher should write these words on the 
board, and let the pupils pronounce them. 

Exercise in Orthoepy. 
.1. finale, 6. inquiry, 

2. apparatus, 7. employe, 

3. orotund, 8. condolence, 

4. jugular, 9. dessert, 

5. enervate, 10. pronunciation. 

Same Words with Diacritical Marks. 

1. fina'le, 6. Inqul'ry, 

2. apparatus, 7. emploj'e, 

3. o'rotund, 8. condolence, 

4. jtl'gular, 9. dSssSrt', 

5. Sner'vate, 10. pronouncia'tion. 

Exercise in Orthoepy. 

1. aye, 6. acclimate, 

2. area, 7. apparent, 

3. almond, 8. aspirant, 

4. alias, 9. allopathy, 

5. arctic, 10. albumen. 

Same Words with Diacritical Marks. 

1. a'ye, 6. accli'mate, 

2. ii'rea, 7. apparent, 

3. ii'lmond, 8. asplr'ant, 

4. fi'llas, 9. allop'athy, 

5. arc'tic, 10. albu'men. 

Exercise in Orthoepy. 

1. Appalachian, G. Colorii'do, 

2. Am'azon, 7. Coho'es, 

3. New Or'leans, 8. Virginia, 

4. Newfoundland, 9. Arkansas, 

5. Skawan'gunk, 10. Ausa'ble. 



68 SPELLING, 

Remarks.— " Exactness in articulation cannot exist 
without close discrimination and careful analysis." The 
preceeding exercises on the correct pronounciation of 
words should receive attention. It would be well for 
the teacher to write on the borad a list of words pro- 
nounced incorrectly by the pupils, and require the pupils 
to correct them. — The author's " Pocket Pronunciation 
Book," (price 15 cts.,) gives 3000 of the words oftenest 
mispronounced. 

Inquiries are made frequently for books for written 
spelling. Of these the number is legion, but one of the 
best is "The Bulletin Blank Speller," prepared by 
Henry B. Buckham, Principal of the Buffalo State 
Normal School. Price 15 cts. each, $10.00 per hundred. 



pENyw 



AN'SHIP. 



INTRODUCTION. 



But little need be said on this subject, for the reason 
that the authors of the various systems of penmanship 
have placed before the public "Hand-Books" on the 
subject, so that teachers may qualify themselves to 
teach it. A moment's reflection will suffice to convince 
any one of the importance of this art; it is intimately 
connected with all the commercial and social relations 
of life. 

When we reflect that a brief practice, a few months 
at the farthest, under a competent instructor, will 
enable even a child to command and use this noted 
instrument, I would ask, is it not a shame that pupils 
frequently leave school at the age of twelve years 
unable to write even a tolerable hand ? Writing is 
virtually ignored as a branch of study in a majority of 
our common schools. It should not be placed in the 
background: rather in the foreground of our educa- 
tional work. Writing and Drawing are together the 
complement of reading. In our best schools pupils 
are taught to write the first year, and remarkable results 
are attained. 

Writing, as a medium for communicating thought is 
almost as important as speaking. Scrawls that cannot 



10 



PENMANSHIP. 



be read may be compared to talking that cannot be 
understood. If the teachers would attain excellence in 
Penmanship they must master the principles and faith- 
fully practise them. Writing cannot be thoroughly 
taught by imitation; it must be made a study for a 
few months' time, and then all the difficulties will be 
removed. We have seen hundreds of teachers who 
could not tell what kind of lines were used in making 
the letter " n." Good penmanship should be exacted as 
a qualification of our public school teachers. 

As a general rule teachers dislike to teach writing 
because they do not know how. Let the teachers of 
our public schools learn to write and at the same time 
learn to teach the art. Children like to write, never 
need urging when the instruction is imparted profitably 
and correctly. One year at school with the qualified 
teacher would enable every pupil to write a plain hand. 
We hope the brief instruction on this subject will pay 
good interest on the time expended upon its study. 



Penmanship. 



I. Position. 



f 1. Left side. 

2. Front. 

3. Right oblique. 
(^ 4. Right side. 



II. Movement. 



1. Finger. 

2. Fore-arm. 

3. Combined. 

4. Whole-arm. 



POINTS TO BE OBSERVED. 



71 



III. Lines. 



IV. Slant. 



V. Space. 



I 



f 1. Base-line. 

J 2. Head-line. 

3. Intermediate line. 

k 4. Top-line. 

1. Main-slant. 

2. Connective-slant. 

1. Height. 

2. Width. 

3. Length. 



( 1. Main. 
fl. Slants. ■{ ,-.,«.,.„ 

I ( 2. Connective I J" Right Curve. 

VI. Construction, i 2. Angles. \ W T ^wer. * 3 - Left Curve - 
I ( (6) Upper. 

la Turns. i ® £ ower - 
( (o) Upper. 

f 1. Short, (thirteen,) 
f 1. Small, -j 2. Semi-extended, (four,) 
VIII. Form. J ' 3 * Exten <Ied or loop, (nine.) 

[ 2. Capital.— Three Classes. 

1. Straight line. 

2. Right curve. 

3. Left curve. 
VIII. Principles. -j 4. Extended loop. 

5. Direct oval. 

6. Reversed oval. 
^ 7. Capital stem. 

' 1 Between letters, one and one- 
fourth spaces; except a, d, g and 

IX. Spacing. J fr two spaces. 

2. Between words, one and one- 
half spaces. 
^ 3. Between sentences, two spaces. 



72 



PENMANSHIP. 



X. Counting. <{ 2. 



3. 



Count one on the first stroke, two on 

the second, and so on, until the last 

stroke; then repeat one. 
Count one on the combination; and 

one at the end of a word. 
In writing a copy, pronounce _ the 

word before counting. 



XI. Shading. <j Five different forms. 



XII. Requisites. <( 



1. Good teaching. 

2. Good copy. 

3. Good desk. 

4. Good paper. 

5. Good pens. 

6. Good pen-holders. 

7. Good ink. 

8. Blotter. 

9. Pen-wiper. 

10. Practice paper. 

11. Blackboard. 

12. Covers. 



r 



XIII. Opening. \ 



1. Position. 

2. Adjust book. 
8. Find copy. 

4. Adjust arms. 

5. Open inkstand. 

6. Take pens. 

7. Take ink. 

8. Ready. 

9. Write. 
10. Count. 



POINTS TO BB OBSERVED. 



73 



XIV. 



Closing. 



f 1. Wipe pens. 

2. Pass pens. 

3. Position. 

4. Close inkstand. 

5. Pass pen-wiper. 

6. Close books. 

7. Pass books. 

8. Position. 



Penmanship. 
I. Directions. 

1. Construct and illustrate tbe letters on the board. 

2. Give instruction and practice on individual letters. 

3. Teach writing as a simultaneous exercise. 

4. Require the pupils to — 

(a) Analyze the letters; first in concert, with the 

elements; second, with the principles. 

(b) Analyze the letters with precise language before 

execution. 

(c) Write slowly in the beginning. 

(d) Write on the board daily. 

(e) Write without lifting the pen from the paper. 
(/) Write with the slate-pencil in the beginning. 
(g) Pass an oral examination weekly ; written 

examination monthly. 



II. Cautions. 

1. Teach and train the pupils to know. 

2. Teach and train the pupils to execute. 

3. Teach and train the pupils to criticise. 

4. Teach and train the pupils to correct. 



74 PENMANSHIP. 

III. Results. 
{ 1. Accuracy. 

1 Lee-ibilitv - \ 2 ' S y mmetr y- 

1. Legibility. \ 3> Uniformity. 

(^4. Neatness. 

2. Beauty. 

3. Rapidity. 

Position. 

The position of the body is of great importance to 
correctness and freedom of execution. We should first 
teach the correct position of the body, arms, hands and 
feet, and alsolutely insist that every pupil shall sit in 
this manner unless prevented by some physical deform- 
ity. Teachers sometimes make a great mistake; they 
show the proper position but neglect to insist upon it. 

Whatever the position, the pupil should learn to sit 
easily upright and keep the shoulders square. 

Left Position. 

Sit with the left side making an angle of forty-five 
degrees with the desk; place the book nearly square 
with the desk a little to the right of the body. 

This position is the most favorable for writing on 
large books. 

Front Position. 

Sit directly facing the desk, near to it, with the feet 
level on the floor, and the fore-arms resting slightly on 
the desk in front, at right angles to each other. The 
right arm should rest lightly on the edge of the desk, 
on the muscles below the elbow. Adjust the book so 
that the right arm will be at right angles to the lines 
on which you are to write. 



MARK THE POSITION. 7S 

Right- Oblique, 

The Right-Oblique positition varies from the full 
right position in having the right side but partially 
turned toward the desk, and the arms and book placed 
obliquely on the desk. 

Right Position, 

Turn the right side near to the desk but not in contact 
with it; keep the body erect, the feet level on the floor; 
place the right arm parallel with the edge of the desk, 
resting on the muscle just forward of the elbow. Let 
the left hand be at right angles to the right and resting 
on the book, keeping it parallel with the edge of the 
book. 

Movement. 

In writing, the instruments used are the pen -fingers, 
the fore-arm and the whole arm movements. A free, 
easy movement produces a graceful line, while a stiff, 
cramped one produces a rough, irregular line. The 
training of the muscles of the arm and hand must be 
attended to by the teacher. In the first attempts at 
writing, the muscles may not properly perform what the 
mind directs; but by frequent and careful practice they 
are rendered obedient to the will. So important is this 
training that some authors institute tracing exercises to 
educate the hand to regular movements. 

Finger Movement. 

This movement is made by the extension and retrac- 
tion of the pen-fingers and the thumb, and it is chiefly 



76 PENMANSHIP. 

used in making the upward and downward strokes. It 
is used mainly in making single letters. This movement 
and its exact position should be carefully taught. 

Fore- Arm Movement. 

This movement is made by resting the arm on the 
muscles below the elbow, — that is, the muscles below 
the elbow are used as the centre of motion, giving a 
lateral movement. It may be employed in making 
strokes in any direction. 

Combined Movement. 

This movement consists in the united action of the 
fore-arm, hand and fingers, the fore-arm acting on its 
muscular rest as a centre. This movement answers the 
requirements of business use better than any other. 

Whole-Arm Movement. 

The whole-arm movement consists in the use of the 
whole-arm from the shoulder, the elbow being raised 
slightly from the desk. This movement is mainly used 
for striking large capitals. For practice it is highly 
beneficial, giving steadiness and ease to the movement. 

Lines. 

Writing is the complement of Drawing. It is sup- 
posed that instruction has been given upon simple geo- 
metrical lines. 

Base Line. 

The horizontal line on which the writing rests, is 
called the Base Line. 



technical terms. 77 

Head Line. 

The horizontal Hue to which the small letters extend, 
is called the Head Line. 

Intermediate Line. 

The horizontal line to which the semi-extended let- 
ters reach, is called the Intermediate Line. 

Top Line. 

The horizontal line to which the loop or extended let- 
ters extend, is called the Top Line. 

Slants. 

A straight line standing to the right of a vertical, 
forming an angle of 52 degrees with the horizontal, 
gives the Main Slant. 

Connective Slants. 



Curves which connect straight lines in small letters 
e made on a 

Connective SIa?it. 



are made on an angle of 30 degrees, and called the 



Space. 

Height. 

The unit for measuring the height of letters is the 
small letter "i" without the dot, both for small and 
capital letters, and is called a space. 

Width. 

The unit for measuring the width of letters is the dis- 
tance between the two slanting straight lines in the 
small letter " u " taken horizontally, and is called a 
space. 



78 PENMANSHIP. 

Length. 
The length of the letter, taking " t" for the standard, 
is a trifle greater than the width. 

Construction. 
The construction of a letter is to tell the height, 
width, angles, turns and slant. 

Angles. 
The angle is formed by a straight line meeting a 
curved line. 

Turns. 

The turn is formed by a curve line meeting a 
straight line; it should be made as short as possible 
without making an angle. 

Form — (Small Letters.) 

The short letters are — 

€, u, €(Ay n, <m, it, c, a, <%, e, €,l,d. 

The semi extended letters are — 



/I, €1. 



The extended or loop letters are — 



/'"-/ "'/ " ;s > 7/ yv^/ 





Capital Letters. 
Capital letters are divided into three classes: 
First class: 







PRINCIPLES. 



79 



Second class- 




Principles. 

1. A straight line on the main slant is the First Prin- 
ciple. 

2. A right curve, usually on the connective slant, is 
the Second Principle. 

3. A left curve, usually on the connective slant, is the 
Third Principle. 

4. A loop upon the main slant, is the Fourth Prin- 
ciple. 

5. A direct oval or capitol O, is the Fifth Principle. 

6. A reversed oval upon the main slant, is the Sixth 
Principle. 

7. The capital stem is the Seventh Principle. 

Spacing. 
The spacing should be carefully watched in writing; 
nothing adds more beauty to writing than uniform and 
correct spacing. 

Counting. 
To keep the members of the class together and pro- 
duce a steady and uniform movement, it is necessary to 
apply time to the movements of the pen in writing. 



80 PENMANSHIP. 

Some pupiis move too rapidly, without taking pains to 
make the letters; others move too slowly, with an 
irregular, tremulous motion. The best results have 
been attained by counting; we believe it to be the best 
and only way to teach pupils to write in a body. Direc- 
tions are given in the tabulation. 

Shading. 

This adds beauty to the writing, but it should be used 
very sparingly. Capital letters should be used very 
sparingly. Capital letters should be shaded, but it is 
not necessary to shade small letters. 

Requisites. 

In order to progress, pupils should be supplied with 
good materials. Nothing is gained by placing in child- 
ren's hands poor materials. The blackboard should be 
used in every exercise. 

Opening. 

The same order and system should prevail in the ex- 
ercises in writing as in any other, and all the pupils 
should be required to write during the exercise; for 
any deficiency they should be instructed that it must be 
made up, the same as in any other recitation. 

Seldom do we see the whole school engaged in the 
writing exercise. Open and close the exercise carefully; 
have a system. 

General Remarks. — The pupils on their first en- 
trance into the school-room, should be supplied with a 
slate ruled on one side; if not ruled the teacher should 
rule it. The slate pencil should be long. 



SUGGESTIONS; 81 

Instruction should be given on Lines the first day, 
and the teacher should place the lines on the board 
and require the pupils to copy. After they retire to 
their seats they should be requested to reproduce the 
work. This will give them employment, and lead to 
the mastery of penmanship in a very few months. 
Pupils should first be taught to make all the letters on 
their slates, and after they can make them readily they 
may then use the lead pencil and paper. Pen and ink 
should not be placed in their hands until they can make 
all tile letters, both small and capital, readily and per- 
fectly. 

All the exercises of the school require more or less 
writing, and the teacher should begin it at an early day. 
Same teach pupils to print at first; while I do not think 
this to be the correct way, yet good results have been 
attained. Pupils can be taught to form the script char- 
acters as early as the printed. 

In the schools of Columbus, Ohio, St. Louis, Mo., 
New York and Brooklyn, and many other cities, the 
pupils are taught to write first year. They have 
attained the most satisfactory results in spelling and 
in reading through the teaching of penmanship. We 
know from experience in the school room that children 
under eight years of age can be made good penmen 
in one year's time. We would encourage teachers to 
try it; if. at the end of the year you have not succeeded, 
blame yourself, 



82 penmanship. 

Analysis of a Letter. 

i. — The letter ec i fJ is one space in height and 
two spaces in width, composed of the right curve, 
main slant, and the right curve. 

Remarks. — The analysis above is all that is neces- 
sary at first, but a fuller one may be given after they 
understand the parts, as follows: 

i — The letter Cl i" is one space in height and two 
spaces in width, composed of the right curve, upper 
angle, main slant, lower turn, and the right curve. 

Or it may be analyzed by principles, thus: 

i — The letter ie i " is composed of the second 
.principle, first principle, and the second principle. 



P P v A 



WING. 



INTRODUCTION. 



How it came to pass that arithmetic should be 
taught to the extent attained in the public schools of 
the civilized world, while geometry is almost wholly 
excluded from them, is a problem of which the 
author of this manual has often sought a solution, but 
with only this result, viz: that arithmetic, being con- 
sidered an elementary branch, is included in all systems 
of instruction; but, geometry, being regarded as a 
higher branch is reserved for systems of advanced 
education, and is on that account reached by but very 
few of the many who need it. 

The error here is fundamental. Instead of teaching 
the elements of all brandies, we teach elementary 
branches much too exhaustively. The elements of 
Geometry are much easier to learn, and are of more 
value when learned, than advanced Arithmetic; and, 
if a boy is to leave the school with merely a common 
school education, he would be much better prepared 
for the active duties of life with a little Arithmetic and 
some Geometry, than with more Arithmetic and no 
Geometry. 

Unthinking persons frequently assert that young 



84 DRAWING. 

children are incapable of reasoning, and that the truths 
of Geometry are too abstract in their nature to be ap- 
prehended by them. 

To these objections, it may be answered, that any 
ordinary child, five years of age, can deduce the con- 
clusion of a syllogism if he understands the terms con- 
tained in the propositions; and that nothing can be 
more palpable to the mind of a child than forms, mag- 
nitudes, and directions. 

There are many teachers who imagine that the per- 
ceptive faculties of children should be cultivated exclu- 
sively in early youth, and that the reason should be ad- 
dressed only at a later period. 

It is certninly true that perception should receive a 
larger share of attention than the other faculties during 
the first school years; but it is equally certain that no 
faculty can be safely disregarded, even for a time. 
The root does not attain maturity before the stem 
appears; neither does the stem attain its growth before 
its branches come forth to give birth in turn to leaves; 
but root, stem and leaves are found simultaneously in 
the youngest plant. 

That the reason may be profitably addressed through 
the medium of geometry at as early an age as seven 
years is asserted by no less an authority than President 
Hill of Harvard College, who says, in the preface to 
his admirable little geometry, that a child seven years 
old may be taught geometry more easily than one of 
fifteen. 

The author holds that this science should be taught 
in all primary and grammar schools, for the same 



GEOMETRY AND DRAWING. 85 

reasons that apply to all other branches. One of these 
reasons will be stated here, because it is not sufficiently 
recognized even by teachers. It is this: 

The prime object of school instruction is to place in 
the hands of the pupil the means of continuing his 
studies without aid after he leaves school. The man 
who is not a student of some part of God's works can- 
not be said to lead a rational life. It is the proper bus- 
iness of the school to do for each branch of science ex- 
actly what is done for reading. 

Children are taught to read, not for the sake of what 
is contained in their readers, but that they may be able 
to read all through life, and thereby fulfil one of the 
requirements of civilized society. So, enough of each 
branch of science should be taught to enable the pupil 
to pursue it after leaving school. 

If this view is correct, it is w r rong to allow a pupil to 
reach the age of fourteen years without knowing even 
the alphabet of Geometry. He should be taught at 
least how to read it. 

It certainly does seem probable, that if the youth who 
now leave school with so much Arithmetic, and no 
Geometry, were taught the first rudiments of the sci- 
ence, thousands of them would be led to the study of 
the higher mathematics in their mature years, by rea- 
son of those attractions of Geometry which Arithmetic 
does not possess. 

The author would combine Geometry and Drawing, 
and make it purely a development exercise. But very 
little attention has been given to this subject in the 
schools of this country. It is one of the first subjects 



86 DRAWING. 

that should receive attention in the primary classes. 
There is no subject that will produce such satisfactory 
results in so short a time as Drawing. It gives a good 
discipline to the mind, as it deals at first with geomet- 
rical terms, as lines, angles, circles, etc. It is an exer- 
cise well calculated to develop reason and judgment on 
the part of the pupils. The eye is trained to observe 
and compare objects; and the hand is trained to exe- 
cute. 

It should precede all the primary work in the school; 
should be taught before reading, spelling, writing num- 
bers, etc. It is the complement of writing and map- 
drawing; it is a source of endless amusement and in- 
struction. How much more quick and satisfactory is 
the process of delineating an object by drawing, than 
that of describing it by words. The requirement of 
this art necessitates also the right use of the faculties 
of sight, observation, imitativeness and even concep- 
tion. 

Precedence is always given to knowledge, and not to 
manual execution. The teacher who has at the end 
nothing to show but finely drawn lines, has given poor 
instruction. His class should be able to sustain a thor- 
ough examination, based on the principles of geometri- 
cal terms. It is expected that the teacher will thor- 
oughly instruct the pupils in the methods of work, and 
in the definitions of terms, a thing that cannot be done 
without frequent review. 

Elementary Drawing, when taught in a rational, sys- 
tematic manner, is one of the easiest and one of the 
most delightful things to teach to children. Like other 



ELEMENTARY DEFINITIONS. 87 

studies it must be made compulsory, and not be left to 
the decision of the teacher and pupil. There must be 
examinations and promotions, as in other branches. 

Satisfactory results in drawing are no more depend- 
ent upon special gifts on the part of pupils, than satis- 
factory results in arithmetic are dependent upon special 
mathematical gifts. It is only necessary that the pupils 
set about the study of drawing as they set about the 
study of arithmetic, geography or grammar. 

Elementary Definitions of Drawing. 

1. That which has position but no dimensions, is a 
Point. 

2. That which has length, but neither breadth nor 
thickness, is a Line. 

3. A line that does not change its direction at any 
point, is a Straight Line; it indicates the shortest dis- 
tance between two points. 

4. A line that changes its direction at every point, is 
a Curved Line. 

5. A line that changes its direction at some of its 
points, is a Broken Line. 

6. A straight line that points to the centre of the 
earth, is a Vertical Line. 

V. A straight line that points to the horizon, is a Hor- 
izontal Line. 

8. A straight line that is neither vertical nor horizon- 
tal, is an Oblique Line. 

9. A line that bends regularly, and if continued, 
would form the circumference of a circle, is a Simple 
Curve. 



88 DRAWING. 

10. A line composed of two or more simple curves, is 
a Compound Curve. 

11. A plane figure bounded by a compound curve 
struck from two centers, is an Ellipse. 

12. A line that is regular in all its parts is a Regular 
Broken Line. 

13. A line that is irregular in some or all of its parts, 
is an Irregular Broken Line. 

14. Lines that extend in the same direction and 
whose opposite points are always the same distance 
from one another throughout their entire length, are 
Parallel Lines. 

15. Lines where the points are connected are Continu- 
ous. 

16. Lines where the points are disconnected are Dis- 
continuous. 

IV. The difference in the direction of two straight 
lines, is an Angle. 

18. An angle which is formed by the meeting of two 
straight lines perpendicular to each other, is a Right 
Angle. 

19. An angle which is less than, a right angle is an 
Acute Angle. 

20. An angle which is greater than a right angle is 
an Obtuse Angle. 

21. A plane figure having three sides, is a Triangle. 

22. A triangle that has one right angle, is a Right 
Angled Triangle. 

23. A triangle that has one obtuse angle, is an Ob- 
tuse-Angled Triangle. 

24. A triangle whose angles are all acute is an Acute- 
Angled Triangle. 



ELEMENTARY DEFINITIONS. 80 

2d. A triangle where the three sides are equal to each 
other, is an Equilateral Triangle. 

26. A triangle where the three sides are of unequal 
length, is a Scalene Triangle. 

2 7. A triangle where two ot its sides are equal, is an 
Isosceles Triangle. 

28. A plane figure having four sides, is a Quadril- 
ateral. 

29. A quadrilateral that has no two sides parallel, is 
a Trapezium. 

30. A quadrilateral where only two sides are parallel, 
is a Trapezoid. 

31. A quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel, 
is a Parallelogram. 

32. A right-angled parallelogram, is a Rectangle. 

33. A parallelogram whose opposite sides are equal 
but which has no right angles, is a Rhomboid. 

34. A parallelogram with four equal sides, but the 
angles not right angles, is a Rhombus. 

35. A figure having four equal sides and four right 
angles, is a Square, or an Equilateral Rectangle. 

36. A figure tha£ has four right angles, but only its 
opposite sides equal, is an Oblong. 

37. A plain figure bounded by a curved line, every 
part of which is equally distant from a point within 
called its centre, is a Circle. 

38. A straight line drawn from the centre to the cir- 
cumference, is a Radius. 

39. A straight line drawn through the centre and 
touching the circumference on both sides, is the 
Diameter. 

40. Lines drawn from side to side, passing through 
the centre, are the Diameters of a Square. 



90 



DRAWING. 



41. Lines connecting the opposite angles of a square 
are called the Diagonals of a Square. 

42. The straight line connecting the ends of a curve 
is the Base. 

43. The perpendicular distance from the base to the 
highest point of the curve is the Altitude. 

44. A straight line which touches the circumference 
of a circle at two points, but which is shorter than the 
diameter, is a Chord. 

45. Any part of the circumference of a circle is an 
Arc. 

Geometry. — Elementary Exercise. 
A. Point and Lines. 



I. Point. 



f 1. Straight. 



a. Vertical. 

b. Horizontal 

c. Oblique. 

a. Simple. 

b. Compound. 

c. Elliptical, 



II. Line. { 2. Curved. 

o t> l \ a. Regular. 
I 3. Broken. , T ° , . 
v ( b. Irregular. 

B. Combination of Straight Lines. 
I. Angles. 1 2. Acute. V Two lines. 



Parallel. 
\- Continuous. 



) 



Discon- 
tinuous. 



1. Right. 

2. Acute. 

3. Obtuse. 



f 1. Classified. ( 1. Equilateral. ") 
according •< 2. Scalene. | 

it rp ri;nifr ip Q I to sides. ( 3. Isosceles. I Three 

11. llldll» i 2 C1 a S sified ( 1. Right-angled, f lines, 
according •! 2. Acute-angled. 
[ to angles. ( 3. Obtuse-angled. J 



MANUALS OF DRAWING. 91 

(I. Trapezium. j 1. Square."] 

111. (Jiadri- I 2. Trapezoid. ( 1. Rectangle, "j 2. ObloDg. i Four 

lflferSlS. I **• Paral'og'ms. ■< 2. Rhomboid. j lines. 

' { (3. Rhombus. J 

All who produce good figures should be allowed to 
place them on the board. This will hint toothers, and 
encourage all to do w r ell enough to be allowed to draw 
on the board. Some of these figures the teacher gives 
to the class as dictation exercises, either in the present 
shape or modified. Figures should never be drawn less 
than an inch in size, and the pupil should take positions 
three or four feet away, to criticise his work. If the 
class is large, divide it into equal parts, and let one 
draw at the board each day, while the others draw on 
their slates. 

The teacher needs to study a Manual of Drawing, in 
order to teach it thoroughly and successfully. The 
attention recently concentrated upon this subject has 
led to such progress that no particular book can be 
specified here, as improvement is constant both in 
method and in presentation. 



y 



ANGUAGE. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



They who feel an inward call to teach should deem it 
important to draw out the stores of thought which are 
latent in their native language, to purify it from the 
corruptions which time brings upon all things, to 
endeavor to give distinctness and precision to whatever 
in it is confused, or obscure, or dimly seen. 

We do not wish to condemn the study of grammar; 
every teacher should understand it, and pupils who are able 
to digest the science and assimilate the knowledge 
should be encouraged to study it. But we believe that 
a majority of pupils have formed a distaste for the study 
of grammar, because it was introduced at too early an 
age. Lessons in Language should receive attention 
from the first; but they should be free from all definitions, 
grammatical rules, analysis and parsing; these only clog 
the memory and signify nothing but mere notions of 
general terms. 

Definitions and rules are results, and we should 
seek to attain these results by practical work through 
the study of the art of Language ; then, and not 



OBJECT OF LANGUAGE LESSONS. 93 

until then, shall we arrive at a knowledge of their char- 
acter and an appreciation of their usefulness. 

The Object to Teach Pupils to Speak and Write 

Correctly. 

The object of the stiuly of grammar is " To teach the 
science of language, and the art of correct expression." The 
study of our text books on grammar, does not, as a rule, 
attain these results. Why? Because grammar, proper, 
is a study of only the science of language. Technical 
grammar belongs to the advanced course, and a major- 
ity of our pupils, who leave school before the age of 
twelve years, should study only the art of expression, 
which would be of use through life; whereas the study 
of grammar will be to them of but little use if any. 

In Language the duty of preparing the soil, and 
planting the seed, is with the primary teacher. Correct 
sentences should always be used in the presence of the 
pupil; if the teacher be careful in this direction, in no 
case using incorrect language, the ear becomes accus- 
tomed to correct forms of expression, and the child will 
unconsciously acquire them. These cannot be learned 
by setting children to classyfying, conjugating or de- 
clining. Pupils must learn the art of language, and 
through the art come up to the science. Language is a 
growth. It cannot be stereotyped. Language and 
thought have reciprocal influence. Right habits of 
language produce right thinking, and vice versa. The 
language of a person is a test and evidence of his 
thoughts and mental culture. The chief cause of alarm 
is on account of the woful ignorance of English and the 



94 LANGUAGE. 

faulty use of our mother tongue among nominally 
intelligent and educated people — even among teachers, 
who of all others should use pure language. The 
teacher is responsible for the language of his puuils. 

Good Language — How Acquired. 

We acquire language through imitation; the pupil 
who has always heard good language, will use good 
language; his ability to use good language does not 
depend upon his knowledge of grammar, but upon his 
having heard good English, read good English, and 
practised good English. Without further comment 
upon language, we would say, that whatever else may 
be omitted in teaching, — no teacher can afford to dispense 
with the language exercise. 

"I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that 
by my voice I might teach others also, than a thousand words in 
an unknown tongue." — /. Cor. XVI.: 19. 



LESSON I. 



/. Directions. 

1. Ask the children to tell the names of the objects — 

a. In the school-room, the yard, the house, etc. 

b. Made of wood, iron, gold, wool, cotton, etc. 

c. Manufactured by the carpenter, moulder, etc. 



FIRST LESSONS. 95 

2. Ask tbe pupil to tell the names of the parts of 
tilings. 

3. To name some of the qualities of things. 

4. To tell the uses of things. 

77. Cautions. 

1. Insist on correct articulation. 

2. Form correct ideas; then insist on the intelligent 
use of the terms. 

3. Let every exercise bear upon the correct use of 
language. 

III. Results. 

1. The command of language. 

2. The concise use of language. 

3. Increased mental power. 

Remarks. 

The pupils will at first mention the names of things 
in the wildest confusion. The teacher listens patiently 
for a few seconds, then kindly bids them stop, and tells 
them to begin at a certain part of the room and to 
speak one at a time, and name things in order. 

In the answers constant attention must be paid to 
the pronunciation of words — distinct and correct articula- 
tian being one of the first requisites of correct lan- 
guage. 

Yet this should not be insisted upon to such an 
extent, as to make it irksome to the pupils. The child 



96 LANGUAGE. 

can attain perfection only gradually, and the teacher 
should encourage but not drive. Indeed, the child needs 
no driving; he will work cheerfully and zealously with 
the leader who has learned the art of working with the 
child. 

As the names of objects are given by the children, 
the teacher should write these names in columns on 
the board, requiring the children to spell each word as 
it is written, assisting or correcting when necessary. 

Let the children say something about each object, the 
teacher helping them to determine how far the terms 
they apply are appropriate. 

The teacher should add to these descriptions the 
names, and lead the children on to the formation of 
simple statements in their shortest form. 



Capital Letters and the Full Stop. 

In the written exercise, the chidren should be led 
to observe that each sentence begins with a capital 
letter and ends with a period. The teacher will use 
judgment in the assignment of the directions in each 
lesson. 

The directions should be written on the board, one at a 
time, and the pupils requested to follow the directions, 
and read the statements from the slate. After an ex- 
ercise has been carefully examined, the teacher should 
require the class to reproduce it. 

The children may be supplied with little books, in 
which to write out these lessons at home. For some 



PARTS OF OBJECTS. 97 

time they should not be required to originate anything 
for themselves, but merely to reproduce that which has 
been taught in school. They will find pleasure in doing 
that which they can do well. 

When all the objects in the room have formed the sub- 
jects of such lessons, those in the play-ground, the 
street, or in the fields, may be resorted to, gradually 
extending the circle to more remote objects. 

At least a dozen lessons of this description should be 
given. 

Parts of Objects. 

After giving lessons on objects, the teacher will ask 
the pupil to name the parts of objects, and the number 
of those parts. This is the second step in language. 

In these exercises, the teacher should be careful not 
to let the children call that a part, which is merely a 
property or an accident. A part of a material object is 
a portion of it; if the part is removed, the object will 
be diminished in size and weight. It is improper, then, 
to consider as parts the lines and surfaces of objects. 

The exercises on the parts of objects should be varied 
in many ways, so as to arouse and maintain a lively 
interest in the pupils. 

For example — the parts of a pin are the head, shaft 
and point ; of a chair, legs, rounds, seat and bach. 

The first step to be taken in language is to obtain 
ideas. The second is the proper expression of the ideas 
when obtained. 

To acquire ideas, it is necessary to cultivate habits of 
observation ; to use the eyes in noticing not only entire 



98 



LANGUAGE. 



objects, but also their different parts; to consider their 
qualities, uses, operations and effects; together with 
their relations to other things. The mind employed in 
such processes acquires material for its own operations, 
and develops ideas and thoughts as it were spontane- 
ously. 

For this exercise in language it is proposed that the 
children be required to enumerate the parts of some 
visible object, according to the following 





Example. 






A Souse. 




Its parts are: 






stone, sills, 


plates, ceiling, 


mortar, posts, 


raftei 


rs, floor, etc 


joists, doors. 


, shing 


les, 


/ beams, nails, 


chimneys, 




Example. 






Glass. 




Its qualities: 






It is hard, 




inodorous, 


solid, 




colorless, 


smooth, 




heavy, 


bright, 




durable, 


transparent, 


inflexible, 


brittle, 




insoluble, 


cold, 




dry, 


tasteless, 




fusible, etc. 


Its uses: 






For windows to admit the light, 




For spectacles to assist the sight 


J 



HAVE A DEFINITE PLAN. 90 

For useful vessels, such as goblets, pitchers, bottles, 
phials, lamps, etc. 

Thus far we have endeavored to teach the pupils the 
power of rapid, complete and accurate observation, and to 
prepare them for concise, complete, and accurate description. 
The teacher in order to give the children information 
on qualities of objects, so that they may form correct 
impressions, should subject the object to more or less 
complicated experiments. The names of some of these 
qualities, e. g., compressibility, flexibility, etc., must be 
fully illustrated. 

This exercise will furnish abundant opportunity for 
the energetic teacher to invent various means of enter- 
tainment and instruction. 

Interrogate the children closely upon the uses of 
objects, and require them to write short compositions 
about objects, to tell the name, parts, qualities and uses. 

The Teacher Must Have a Plan. 

The teacher must have a plan of presenting subjects. 
Experience daily proves that an unprepared lesson, or 
what may be termed extempore teaching, is sure to be 
diffuse and indifferent; besides the teacher must never 
fail to enter the class well prepared, not only in regard 
to the object on which he intends to exercise his class, 
but upon the order in which the exercises are to be 
conducted, and upon the manner in which the individ- 
ual pupils are to be interrogated. He must himself have 
clear and distinct ideas, must observe accurately and 
think carefully, concisely and correctly. 



100 LANGUAGE. 

Without these requisites the teacher will fail in lan- 
guage. Let him study carefully Fitch's admirable little 
book on "The Art of Questioning," price 15 cts. 



LESSON II. 



I. Directions. 

1. Give the children words similar in pronunciation, 
but different in spelling. 

2. Ask the children — 

a. To find the words in the spelling-book. 

b. To write all the words they know, that have 
the words mentioned in them. 

c. To make a spelling-lesson of the words named. 

d. To write statements, using the words named. 

e. To write a composition, using the statements. 

77. Cautions. 

1. Require the children to answer in full statements. 

2. Give constant attention to distinct articulation. 

3. Correct the common errors in pronunciation. 

4. Make the exercise pleasant and instructive. 

III. Results. 

1. The children will understand the meaning of words. 

2. They will learn correct, simple expression. 

3. They will learn how to write and spell. 

An exact copy of a lesson given in the Primary 
Department of the State Normal school in Buffalo, 
New York, is here appended. 

The words for practice, beech and beach. List of words, 
given by the pupils: 



A NORMAL LESSON. 101 

/. Beech. II. Beach. 

1. beech-tree, 1. sand-beach, 

2. beech-nut, 2. shell-beach, 

3. beech-leaf, 3. pebbly-beach, 

4. beech-wood, 4. beach -timber, 

5. beech -root, 5. Rye beach, 

6. beech-twig, 6. ocean-beach. 

7. beech-bark, 

8. beech-oil. 

Sentences. 
I. Beech; a tree. 

1. The beech-trees make a nice shade in summer. 

2. The beech has a smooth green bark. 

3. The squirrel hides beech-\\\\l§ in his hole for winter. 

4. Beech-wood snaps in the fire. 

II Beach ; a sandy shore. 

1. Year before last we all went to Rye beach in vaca- 
tion. 

2. O, see the pretty pebbles I picked up on the beach! 

3. What fun it is to walk barefoot on the dry warm 
sand, down on the beach. 

III. Compositions. 

1. A beech-tree is a very large forest tree. It has lit- 
tle three-cornered beech-nuts on it. I was out in the 
country once and I saw very many little shells of the 
beech-nuts where the squirrels had been. The beech- 
wood snaps when you put it into the fire, and makes a 
very hot fire. 



102 LANGUAGE. 

2. I went down to the Beach one day and the sand 
was all smooth. I was on the Beach of Lake Michi- 
gan once and made little houses of the beach pebbles in 
the sand. Rye Beach is where the people go to bathe 
in the summer. 

3. A squirrel is a animal that eats beech-nuts. 
When you burn beech-wood it crackles and snaps all on 
the carpet like ashes, The beech-tree grows to be very 
large and when it is very large men go and chop them 
into wood the beech-nut is very good to eat I had some 
twice and they were good sometimes people get oil from 
the nuts; beech leaves are good to chew they have a 
sour taste they are very good; beech nuts are big as the 
end of the finger they are three-cornered the beech-nut 
tree grows in Europe and america. 

The last was written by the youngest girl in the class, 
aged eight. All are printed just as written. 



Remarks. 

Children from eight to ten years of age may be able 
to do the work, if the teacher carefully follows a plan. 

The teacher should spell and pronounce the words, if 
the children cannot, and also tell their exact meaning 
and illustrate them. If possible, try to draw a picture 
at the board, — an indifferent one is better than none. 

The object is to teach spelling, writing and correct 
simple expression. 

The exercise will not prove irksome, but very pleasant 
and instructive. 



SUGGESTIONS. 103 

All erroneous expressions uttered by the children 
should be immediately corrected and the proper words 
fixed upon the mind by repetition. 

In the daily work of the school-room, all definitions 
of the meaning of words, and all descriptions of places, 
objects, or events, whether given by the teacher to the 
children, or elicited from them, should be clothed in 
simple and definite language, and fixed in the memory 
by repetition. 

The children should be trained to give complete 
answers to all questions put to them. Experience 
teaches that nothing more tends to make an idea clear to 
the mind, and to render it a permanent possession, 
than the act of clothing it in accurate language. 

Monosyllabic answers, as " yes" and " no," should be 
rejected, except when they express all that can be said 
on the subject. 

The value of such instruction has not hitherto been 
sufficiently appreciated, but it is hoped that these les- 
sons will show how suited it is to the youthful mind 
and calculated to promote mental training. 



LESSON III. 



I. Directions. 

1. Hold an object before the children and ask them 
to say something about it. 



104 LANGUAGE. 

2. Place objects of the same kind in their hands, and 
let the pupils describe them; first in an oral, second in a 
written description. 

3. Let the pupil compare objects, and tell their dif- 
ferences, as paper and leather, lead and iron, wood and 
stone, etc. 

4. Let the pupils ascribe different qualities to one 
and the same object. 

5. Let the pupils ascribe the same quality to various 
objects. 

6. Let them apply many descriptive terms, applicable 
to various objects. 

7. Let them point out the value of each word and 
state what it adds to the description. 

II. Cautions. 

1. See that the children form correct ideas. 

2. Correct all improper expressions. 

3. Fix the new word in the mind by frequent reviews, 

4. The teacher should assist the children in deter- 
mining the suitability of words, correcting when neces- 
sary. 

5. Encourage the children to reproduce lessons at 
home. 

III. Results. 

1. To train the children to see. 

2. To teach them to compare. 

3. To train them to do, 

4. To train them to tell what they see and do. 



MAKING SENTENCES. 105 

Remarks 

The teacher should require the pupils to answer in 
complete statements, and encourage them to examine the 
objects very careful///. 

In the oral description let the children give the gen- 
eral properties, as the form and color; then the parts, 
properties and uses. In the written description require 
the work to be expressed neatly, giving attention to 
spelling, writing, capital letters, and punctuation. 

The teacher will write the name of some familiar 
object on the board, and will call upon the children to 
apply to it various qualities, writing them as they give 
them. It may be necessary to assist the children in 
determining the suitability of the qualities and also in 
spelling the more difficult words. 

We may suppose a lesson in which the given name 
is " paper." It would present itself in such a form as 
this: — 

The paper is white. 
The paper is thin. 
The paper is smooth. 
The paper is pliable, etc. 
The teacher should next lead the children to notice 
that the word "paper" need only be written once, 
and that the four sentences may be contracted into 
one. Then the teacher directed by the children 
writes: — 

Paper is white, thin, smooth and pliable. 

The children then read this over, and are lead to 

perceive the necessity for commas in those places 

where the words "the paper is" are omitted, and 

also the use of the word "and" between the last two 



106 LANGUAGE. 

words of the sentence. Cover the board and require 
the children to reproduce the lesson. 

When the same quality is attributed to many objects, 
it would present itself in such a form as this: — 
Glass is brittle. 
Chalk is brittle. 
Coal is brittle. 
Glass, coal, and chalk are brittle. 
Iron is hard. 
Flint is hard. 
Glass is hard. 
Iron, flint, and glass are hard. 
The children should be led to notice the stops as be- 
fore, and the change of the word " is " to u are." 

Let the children observe that each sentence begins 
with a capital letter, and ends with a period. Examine 
each slate, and require the children to reproduce correct 
copies. 

Let the children observe that words used in a series 
are separated by a comnni. 

Require the children to write many sentences, until 
this fact is fixed in the mind. 

A practical knowledge of language can be acquired 
only through an intelligent use of it; children should 
be taught to speak and write the English language cor- 
rectly, to be able to detect the more frequent errors 
and correct them. These results can only be accom- 
plished through intelligent teaching. 

Children should not be taught the final deductions 
of the science of language, which are definitions; the 
object is not to commit to memory arbitrary rules, but 
to learn the correct use of language. The ordinary 
methods of teaching grammar do little to accomplish this. 



I -o.M POSITIONS BEGUN. iOl 

LESSON IV. 



1. Ask the pupil to give a name that will apply to 
everything which they can perceive. 

2. Ask the pupils — 

a, To classify the different kinds of matter. 
In To name the different classes. 

c. To name the things that belong to the indi-- 
vicinal classes. 

d. To observe and tell what animals and vegetables 
do. 

e. To notice and tell what animals can do which 
the vegetable cannot do. 

f. To observe the differences between the food 
of plants, and that of animals. 

g. To write a statement using the words named, 
h. To write a short composition, combining the 

statements. 

77. Cautions. 

1. "Never assist the child to a thing that it can do 
itself" with reasonable effort. 

2. Remember that it is a difficult thing to form a 
thought and express it. 

III. Results. 

1. It will arouse the curiosity of the pupils. 

2. It will enlist their undivided attention. 

3. It will cause them to observe closely. 

4; It will teach them the importance of classification. 

Remarks. 
The aim of these language lessons is to enlarge the 
circle of the pupil's knowledge respecting the objects 



108 LANGUAGE. 

brought under inquiry. The true aim is not only to 
impart knowledge rightly, and teach the elements of 
order, but to train the poioers of the pupil. This is its 
dignity ; this its peculiar distinction. The main design 
is the growth and development of the whole being. 

In order to teach language effectively we must begin 
the process, as nature meant we should : by furnishing 
the children with the elements out of which language 
is created, namely, a knowledge of material things. 

The teacher should place upon the table a number of 
articles that belong to the mineral, vegetable and 
animal kingdoms. He should ask the children to ex- 
amine them carefully, and to tell a name that will apply 
to all of them. (It would be well to ask the children 
to bring different things from their homes.) 

The children will give the following names : articles, 
object's, substances ; they may not be able to give the 
term that you wish, which is " matter." Write the 
words on the board, and tell the children that the term 
matter, is the one that you wish. 

Classification. 
After the children become familiar with this term, 



you may ask them to put all the objects of the same 
kind into groups. They will learn to classify objects — 
an important lesson. The teacher will then ask the 
children to name the different groups, viz : mineral, veg- 
etable and animal. (It may prove a surprise to some of 
the children, that they belong to the animal kingdom.) 
Many lessons may be given, requiring the children 

to name things that belong to the different classes. 
The teacher should require the children to bring in 



ElBST IDEAS 1 THEN EXPRESSION. 109 

long lists of those names; an exercise of this nature will 
prove very pleasant and instructive. 

Let the children observe that the animals move about, 
and plants are stationary; that animals and plants take 
food, breathe, grow and die; that plants feed on min- 
erals; and animals on vegetables and animals. 

The teacher should be careful about assisting the 
children; it may be well to let a question remain unan- 
wered for a day or so and see if the pupils cannot find 
out the answer by a few hours' study. 

At first, with the exercises on language, the teacher 
should reach the mind only through the senses, either 
directly or indirectly, with the assistance of memory 
and imagination. 

We learn by observation; the human mind first per- 
ceives the impressions made upon it by external objects 
and phenomena through the various inlets of the soul 
— the senses, and forms them into clear and distinct 
ideas. 

We are then justified in stating that the principal 
aim of school education is to teach the pupils how to 

FORM IDEAS AND HOW TO EXPRESS THEM. 



LESSON V. 



We introduce at this point a new class of objects, 
viz: Words in regard to some of their offices. We 
have examined the nature and functions of other 
things and have made use of the facts thus obtained 
as material lor language development. Words, as 



\\ LANGUAGE. 

will be seen, can be made to give us a large stock of 
working material to be used in advancing the Art of 
Language. 

The Noun. 

Teacher—" What is this ?" 

Pupil—" A bell." 

T. " Spell the word bell." 

Note: — Pupil spells the word, and teacher writes it 
on the board. Obtain and dispose of, similarly, the 
following: book, pencil, cup, Henry, Aurora, 

T. " What are these on the board ?" 

P. " They are words." 

T. " Pronounce this word: Henry." 

P. "Henry." 

T. " When you see or hear this word, of what do you 
think?" 

P. " I think of a boy." 

T. " What boy ?" 

P. "My brother." 

T. " Why, when you hear this word, do you think of 
him ?" 

P. " Because that is his name." 

T. " What kind of a word is it ?" 

P. " A name word." 

T. " Of what is it the name?" 

P. " It is the name of a person." 

T. " Of what is the word cup a name ?" 

P. " The name of a thing." 

T. "Find other words upon the board that are the 
names of things." (Pupils find pencil, book, bell.) 



THE COMMON NOUN. Ill 

T. " Of what do you think when you speak this 
word?" (referring to the word Aurora.) 

P. "Ufa town." 

T. " Why do you think of a place ?" 

P. " Because it is the name of a place." 

T. "Find another word and tell of what that is the 
name." 

P. " Wednesday is the name of a day." 

T. " What is each of these words ?" 

P. " A name." 

T. " Does any one know another word that means the 
same as name?" (No hands raised.) 

P. "You may call these words nouns." (Pupils 
spell.) 

T. "What is a noun?" 

P. " A name is a noun." 

T. "Give me twelve names." (Pupils give names 
and spell them.) 

For to-morrow write: 

1. Ten words that are the names of persons. 

2. Tea words that are the names of things. 

3. Ten words that are the names of places. 



LESSON VI. 



The Common Noun. 

T. " What is this ?" (touching one of the boys.) 

P. "A hoy." 

T. " What are you V" (addressing a boy.) 

P. " A hoy." (Address several boys and obtain 

similar replies.) 



112 LANGUAGE. 

T. " By what name may all of you be called ?" 

P. "Boys." 

T. " A boy may open the door."_. (Several boys start 
to obey.) 

T. " Why do so many of you start when I speak ?" 

P. " We don't know which one you mean." 

T. " Why ?" 

P. " Because the name belongs to each of us." 

T. " What name belongs to each of you ?" 

P. "Boy." 

P. " What have you learned to call a word that is a 
name ?" 

P. " A noun." 

T. " Why is it a noun ?" 

P. " Because it is a name." 

T. "Because the name applies to each of you what 
kind of a name is it ?" 

P. " A common name." 

T. " What kind of a noun is it ?" 

P. " A common noun." 

T. " What is a common noun ?" 

P. "A common name is a common noun." 

T. " But when is a name common ?" 

P. " When it applies to each one of the same kind of 
objects. 

T. " What, then, is a common noun ?" 

P. " A name that applies to each one of the same kind 
of objects is a common noun." 

T. " Peter, bring me five things that have a common 
name. What are these called ?" 
P. "Books." 



THE PROPER NOU^'. 113 

T. " What name may be given to each boy aild girl 
in this school ?" 

P. "Pupil." 

T. "What common name may be given to Miss , 

Miss , and Miss ?" 

P. "Teacher." "Lady." "Woman." 

T. " What kind of nouns are pencil, pupil, teacher, 
lady, boy, girl?" 

P. " Common nouns." 

For to-morrow write a list of: 

1. Twenty common nouns that are names of articles 
of furniture. 

2. Twenty common nouns that are names of tools. 

3. Twenty common nouns that are names of vegeta- 
bles. 

4. Twenty common nouns that are names of minerals. 



LESSON VII. 



The Proper Noux. 

T. " Jane, write your name on the board." (Pupil 
does so.) What have you written ? 

P. "I have written my name." 

T. " Why do you say 'my name?' " 

P. " Because it belongs to me." 

T. " What other person in your family has the same 
name ?" 

P. " No other person has the same name." 

T. "Class: why do you think a different name from 
any other in her Family was given ?" 



114 LANGUAGE. 

P. " To tell her from the others." 

T. "To how many of her family does the name Jane 
belong ?" 

P. " It belongs to one." 

T. " What is this name ?" 

P. "This name is a nonn." 

T. " What is a noun ?" 

P. "A name is a noun." 

T. " Because this name belongs to one only, what kind 
of a noun is it ?" 

P. " It is a particular noun." 

T. " You may call it a proper noun. What is a proper 
nonn ?" 

P. "A particular name is a proper noun." 

T. "To how many does a proper noun belong?" 

P. " It belongs to one." 

T. " Give a name that is common to those three 
things. " (Pointing to a pile of books.) 

P. " Book." 

T. " Give the proper name." 

P. "Monroe's First Reader, Webster's Dictionary, 
Thomson's Arithmetic." 

T. " Open your readers and find five proper nouns." 
(Pnpils do so.) " With what kind of letter is each be- 
gun ? " 

P. " With a capital letter." 

T. " Find a proper noun that does not begin with a 
capital letter." (Pupils fail to find one.) 

1. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of men. 

2. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of 
women. 



THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNrs. 115 

3. Write ten proper nouns that are the i ames of 
places. 

4. Write the proper nouns that are the names of 
divisions of time. 



LESSON VIII. 



The Possessive Form of Nouns. 

T. "What is this?" 

P. " That is a hat." 

T. " Whose hat is it?" 

P. "William's." 

T. " Make a statement of what you say." 

P. " That is William's hat." (Some of the pupils 
write this statement on the board; the others write it on 
their slates.) 

T. " What is the word William's ? " 

P. "A noun." 

T. " What kind of a noun ? " 

P. " A proper noun." 

T. "For what is is it used in the sentence?" 

P. "To tell whose hat." "To tell who owns the 
hat." 

T. " You may say possesses, instead of owns." 

P. " To tell who possesses the hat." 

T. "Speak the word as we commonly hear it." 
(Pupils do so.) 

T. "Speak the word as it is here used." (Pupils. 
do so.) 



116 LANGUAGE. 

[This should be repeated, with this and other nouns, 
until the pupils perceive clearly, and can state the dif- 
ference between the sounds of the two forms.] 

T. " Open your books and find names used as we 
have used the name William in this sentence." (Pupils 
find many names and pronounce them.) 

T. " What is the difference in the sounds of these 
words, and the same words as they are commonly 
called?" (Pupils state.) 

T. " What do you find in the printed word to repre- 
sent that difference ? " 

P. " An apostrophe and a letter s." 

T. "As you look at the words William and Wil- 
liam's, what difference can you see ? " 

P. "One has more letters than the other." "A dif- 
ference in the size of them." "A difference in the form 
of them." 

T. " Because William is the way we commonly use 
the word, what form may we call it? " 

P. "The common form." 

T. " What shall we call the other form ? " (Pupils 
do not know.) 

T. " You may call this the possessive form of the 
noun." (Pupils spell the word.) 

1. Write ten common nouns in the possessive case. 

2. Write ten proper nouns in the possessive case. 

In like manner develop all the Parts of Speech, as the 
adjective, pronoun, verb, etc., and make immediate appli- 
cation of the terms developed. This will lead the pupils 
pleasantly into the Science of Language, and it will be- 
come a rational study. 



THE COMMA. 117 

LESSON IX. 



Quoted Words — Quotation Marks. 

T. " What is an exclaiming sentence ? " (Pupils give 
definition.) 

T. "John, give an exclaiming sentence." 

P. " O, how cold it is ! " 

T. "Mary, tell me what John said." 

P. " John said, ' O, how cold it is ! ' " 

(Pupils repeat, spell words and write upon their 
slates, after which teacher writes upon the board with- 
out punctuating. Two other sentences are obtained 
and similarly disposed of.) 

T. "Read what John said." 

P. '"O, how cold it is ! '„" 

T. " What are you doing when you speak the words 
that he said ? " 

P. " Copying his words." " Repeating his words." 



LESSON X. 



The Comma — Its Use in a Succession of Par- 
ticulars. 

T. " I want you to tell me, by writing on your slates, 
five things that this knife has." 

(The pupils at the age of those for whom these les- 
sons are intended will, almost without exception, write 
five sentences: 



1.18 LANGUAGE 

" This knife has a handle." 

"This knife has a blade." 

" This knife has a back." 

" This knife has a spring." 

"This knife has rivets.") 

T. "How many sentences have you written?" 

P. "Five." 

T. " See how many times yon have written the 
words this, knife, has, and a. Can you not shorten the 
work by putting all you have to say in one sentence ? " 

(Pupils write: 

"The knife has a handle and blade and back and 
spring and rivets.") 

T. "Listen closely. lam going to ask you another 
question. What is the use of the words handle, blade, 
back, spring and ri w£k+ ° 9 Wka* A\f[ vou discover? " 

P. " You said and, only before the last word." 

T. "Now, I think you can give the sentence that you 
have been writing, and have it just right. Who will 
try ? " (Hands are raised.) 

P. "The knife has a handle, blade, back, spring and 
rivets." 

T. " That is right. All repeat." (Pupils repeat, and 
write on their slates.) 

T. "There is a question unanswered. Who can give 
it ? " (Hands are raised.) 

P. " What is the use of the words handle, blade, 
back, spring and rivets ? " 

T. "Right. Who will answer it?" 

P. " To show what the knife has." 

T. "Because they are all used for that purpose what 
may we say about them ? " 



tiie.mi:s. 



119 



P. "They are used in the same way." "They are 
used alike." 

T. " Now, turn to your books, and find words that 
are used alike, and see how they are written; then we 
shall know whether our work is right or not. What do 
you discover? " 

P. " There is a comma after each of the words except 
the one before the last." (Pupils correct the work on 
their slates.) 

T. " You say these words are used in the same way. 
How many words in this sentence are used in the same 
way?" 

P. "Five." "Many." "Several." 

T. "Which now makes the best answer to my ques- 
tion — five, many or several ?" 

P. "Several." 

T. " I think so. We have learned something about 

the use of the comma, and T want you to tell me what it 

it is." 

P. "When several words are used in the same way, 

a comma is placed after each except the one before the 
last." 

Teacher ought now to suggest many kinds of sen- 
tences containing successions of particulars, and have 
them all written and carefully criticised. Drill on this 
lesson should continue several days. 



LESSON XI. 

/. Directions. 

1. The teacher will select a familiar theme and ask 

sugge^l i\ e questions. 



120 LANGUAGE. 

2. Write the correct answers on the board. 
Theme — Watee. 

a. Where does the water come from ? 

b. How does it reach the clouds ? 

c. In what form is it carried ? 

d. What causes it to fall to the earth ? 

e. Is rain useful ? 

f. In what way is it useful ? 

Theme — A Journey. 

a. The starting point. 

b. Time of departure. 

c. Mode of travel. 

d. Destination. 

e. Appearance of the country. 

f. Kind of trees, flowers, etc. 

g. Return. 

Caution. — Enlarge upon the idea of criticising and 
correcting by the pupils. 



LESSON XII. 

7". Directions. 

1. Tell or read a short story, and require the pupils 
to reproduce it, 

2. Write a letter to a wealthy merchant in New York 
city, requesting a situation as salesman in his store. 

3. Write an advertisement describing: a lost child. 

4. Write a composition on each of the following 



KKMAIMvS. 121 

proverbs, explaining its meaning-, ami showing how far 
it is true: — 

a. " Fortune favors the brave." 

b. "All is well that ends well." 

e. " Strike while the iron is hot." 

d. U A little pot is soon hot." 

e. u Out of sight out of mind." 

5. Take some poem of several stanzas, and write your 
opinion of it. 

6. Write a letter to the " New York Times," giving 
an account of a railway accident. 

7. Write an allegory comparing tobacco to a thief. 

Remarks. 

Perhaps as easy a method as any to induce the 
younger class of pupils to make their first efforts at 
composition is to read or relate to them a short, but in- 
teresting story, and desire them to write an outine of 
it, as full and extended as they can within a given time. 
In such an exercise the thoughts are already furnished 
and the only labor of the pupil is to place them in their 
proper connection and clothe them with good language. 
In an exercise of this kind the pupil takes one of his 
first lessons in generalization; he learns to separate and 
classify facts, selecting the most important, and reject- 
ing those of little consequence. A similar course should 
be observed by students in History, writing each day a 
fair outline of the subject matter contained in the pages 
of their lesson. 



i22 LANGUAGE. 

Theme — Abraham Lincoln. 

I. His Early Life. 

a. Birth. 

b. Childhood. 

c. Youth. 

d. Manhood. 

e. Difficulties. 

II. His After Life. 

a. Occupation. 

b. Election to the Presidency. 

c. Administration. 

d. Assassination. 

e. Burial. 

III. His Character. 

a. Simplicity. 

b. Uprightness. 

The Influence of Kind Words. 

1. A Kind Word costs nothing, yet its influence may last through a 

life time. 

a. Kind words at home. 
I). in school. 

c. to friends. 

d. to our inferiors. 

e. to strangers. 

f. to animals. 

//". The Influence iipon the Speaker. 

a. They gain him friends. 

b. They gain him a reputation for amiability. 

c. They keep alive his kindly feelings. 

d. They produce images of beauty in his mind. 

e. They win for him love and gratitude. 

III. The Influence upon the Hearer. 

a. They shame him out of anger. 

b. They comfort him in grief. 

c. They soothe him in pain. 

IV. The Influence upon Children. 



THE INFLUENCE OF KIND WORDS. 123 

V. Influence uj)on the Poor. 

VI. Influence upon Other People. 

a. The morose. 

b. The misanthropic, 
fc. The wicked. 

d. The weak. 

VII. Uses of Kind Words. 
VIII. Value of Kind Words. 

IX. Compared with : 

a. Angry Avoids. 

b. Cold words. 
C. Hot words. 

d. Bitter words. 

e. Vain words, idle words, empty words, profane words, &c. 

X. Conclude by any instances 3-011 may be able to recall, of the 
influence of kind words, in your experience; as, an anecdote or 
incident. 

It is almost impossible to over-estimate the influence 
of a kind word. Years after the speaker has forgotten 
it, or the occasion upon which it was spoken, the hearer 
will feel the result of the encouragement it gave him, 
the difficulty it smoothed or the sorrow it comforted. 
Especially to the weak, the aged or the erring, should 
we offer these aids in life's rough path. Costing noth- 
ing, they may prove pearls of the highest price. They 
have the wondrous property that they can never prove 
harmful, either to the speaker or the hearer. They 
cannot injure, they cannot cause contention, they can- 
not raise harsh feeling. Cherish, then, the kind heart, 
full of love for your fellow creatures, and kind words 
will spring to your lips, to bless and comfort all around 
you. 



124 language. 

Politeness. 
/. Definition. 

Ease and grace of manner, united to a desire to please others, 
and a careful attention to their wants and wishes. 
11. Politeness exacts of us: 

a. Unselfishness, in our care for the comfort or pleasure of 

others. 

b. Elegance of manner, in our desire to please by our de- 

portment. 

c. Deference toward our superiors, either in age, station or 

importance. 

d. Kindness to our inferiors, either children or servants. 
III. Value of Politeness. 

a. It proceeds from the impulse of a kindly nature, prov- 

ing a good heart. 

b. It will admit of a great degree of polish, proving a fin- 

ished education. 

c. It gives respect where it is due, and thus wins considera- 

tion in return. 

d. It gives kindness to inferiors, and thus wins respect and 

gratitude from them. 

e. It promotes good feeling among friends. 

f. It prevents discords, even among enemies. 
1 V Natural Politeness. 

a. Proceeds from the heart without instruction. 

b. Often to be found among the rough and uncultivated, 

even if more clumsily expressed than among the edu- 
cated and refined. 
V. Acquired Politeness. 

a The observance of points of etiquette and good breeding 

by the well educated, 
b. Mere polish of manner, often covering a selfish, hard 
nature. 
VI. Politeness in, different Countries. 

a. The etiquette of one nation often considered rude or in- 

sulting in another. 

b. Every race, even the most savage, has some form of - 

outward politeness, 



WISDOM IS WEALTH. 125 

c. Name any peculiar form of etiquette you may have seen 
or read of. 
VII. Politeness in Children and Young People is one of the 
most winning and graceful of attributes. It is a mis- 
taken idea to fancy rudeness a token of manliness or 
bravery. Bayard, one of the bravest of Cavaliers, was 
one of the most finished gentlemen mentioned in his- 
tory. 
VIII. Perteei Politeness may be defined as the union of natural 
politeness of the heart, and the acquired politeness of 
Etiquette and Custom. Holmes describes the combi- 
nation. 
•• So gentle blending courtesy and art, 
That wisdom's lips seemed borrowing friendship's heart." 

Wisdom is Wealth. 

/ Wealth may be defined as : 

a. Great possessions. 

b. A Large amount of wordly good. 

II Mere Money may. it is true, he considered as Wealth, hut arc 
there not more precious possessions, wordly goods far more 
valuable? 

III. Poverty, it is true, will impede our search for Wisdom, as we 
si/all lack : 

a. Time for study, if obliged to earn a livelihood. 

b. The means of buying books. 

c. The advantage of good instruction. 

IV But Wisdom once gained is preferable to Money, for these 
r< itxons : 
a. Once gained it cannot hi- taken from us, while money 

may be lost by a thousand reverses. 
h. It can never he given to us, hut we must taste the 

sweets of exertion and enjoy the reflection that we have 

earned our treasures. 
c We can never acquire wisdom by theft, or inherit it 

when dishonestly acquired, as we might mere money. 

d. Wisdom is independence. The man who has acquired 

knowledge, can in a great measure control his own 



126 LANGUAGE. 

future. His opportunities for earning money are 
largely increased; his pleasures lie in his love of read- 
ing and study, and are therefore always open to him; 
he is respected by his fellow men; he never feels the 
weariness of the vacant mind; if reverses come to him 
his wisdom enables him to meet them bravely and 
often to conquer them. 
V. Conclusion, 

In starting, therefore, in life, the possession of wisdom is far 
preferable to the possession of mere money, if ignorance is the 
price of the latter. A fool can never win honor or even respect 
if he were to possess unbounded riches; all the pleasures that can 
be purchased are nothing compared to the delights of a cultivated 
mind and a refined intellect. 

Seek, therefore, to gain wisdom, that you may possess that true 
wealth that can never be taken away from you, that you will 
never lose, that you may impart freely to others, and in so im- 
parting increase your own store rather than diminish it. 

Whose life most brightly illuminates the pages of the past — the 
Avise man's or the rich man's? 

In the history of the future, aim rather to figure as a Socrates 
than as a Croesus. 

Compare the life of the wisest man you can remember, and 
that of the richest man. 
Knowledge is Power; Wisdom is wealth. 

Absent Friends. 
/. Introduction. 

In this world of change, every one is called upon to feel the 
pain of separation from friends endeared by association or acts 
of kindness. The dearest friends are severed by circumstances, 
often having the ocean between them. 

//. Treatise. 

a. Affection is kept warm by kind remembrance. 

b. Tender recollection will dwell upon words spoken by 

the absent, and the memory of their acts will be cher- 
ished with pleasure. 



i:\ki;. im: in synonyms. 12*/ 

c. Their return to us, or our joining them, will be antici- 
pated with delight. 
(1. The circumstances under which separation look place 

will seriously all'ect our thoughts. 

1. Parting in anger. Time heals rage. 

2. Parting in affection. Time increases love. 

::. Partingin sorrow. Anticipated joy of meeting again. 

e. Separation by death. 

1. Memory of friends then becomes a holy and pleasant 
duly. 

2. Faults are forgotten when the grave closes over them. 
4. But few homes are withoul their un forgotten dead, 

whose memory is associated with some spot or hour. 

f. Compare the [tain of parting and the pleasure of meeting. 

1. After a journey. 

2. After years of separation. 

:!. Hope of reunion in another world. 
• The joys of meeting pay the pangs of absence; 
Else who could hear it?" [Rowe. 

General Directions. 
1. Make a plan or outline of the essay before writing any part of it. 
Note down in writing any useful tliought that may occur to 
you while you are collecting material for your composition. 

Exercise in Synonyms 

1. Custom— habit. — Custom respects the action; habit the actor; 

By custom we mean the frequenl repetition of the same act; 
by habit the effeel which thai repetition produces on the 
mind or body. 

2. Pride— vanity. — Pride makes ns esteem ourselves; vanity 

makes ns desire the estem of others. 
::. Enough— -sufficient.— Enough relates to the quantity which 
one wishes to have of anything; sufficient, is all thai is 

Heeded. 

4. Remark — observe, — We remark in the way of attention, in 

order to remember; we observe in the way of examination, 
in order bo judge. 

5. Qualified— Competent.- Qualified, having the training, skill, 

knowledge; competent, having the power. 



128 LANGUAGE. 

6. Entire — complete — perfect. — Entire, having- all its parts; com- 

pltte, all its appendages; perfect, all essentials, without 
flaw. 

7. Fortitude — courage. — Fbrtitude,ipower to endure pain; cour- 

age, power to face danger. 

8. Vocation — avocation. — Vocation is the calling or profession; 

avocation, the temporary employment, 

9. Excuse — pardon — forgive. — We excuse slight offences; we 

pardon manifest faults; we forgive sin. 

10. Grand- -sublime. — Lovely, pretty, beautiful. (We omit 
definitions, Point out the distinctions.) 

11. Amuse — divert — entertain. — Amuse, to pass time lightly and 
pleasantly away; divert, to turn one's thoughts to some- 
thing of a livelier interest; entertain, to put the mind into 
agreeable contact with others, as through conversation, or 
a book. 

12. Arduous — hard — difficult. — Difficult, anything that requires 
more or less exertion to perform it; hard, that which re- 
quires a decidedly greater offort to perform it; arduous, 
that which requires strenuous and persevering effort to 
perform it. 

Gaspel. — Derived from the Saxon adjective God, meaning good, 
and spell, a narrative — the good narrative, or glad tidings. 

This can be made a very pleasant and instructive ex- 
ercise ; the teacher should explain and illustrate the syn- 
onyms, and require the pupils to form sentences, using 
the words correctly. It will teach precision in the use 
of words ; great care should be taken to distinguish be- 
tween the general meanings and particular applications. 

Instruct the pupils to use simple, plain terms ; com- 
pare the quotations below and study the difference in 
the simplicity of the thought. 

" Life is real, life is earnest ; and the grave is not its goal. 
Dust thou art, to dust returnest, was not spoken of the soul. 

--Longfellow. 



VULGARISMS. 129 

"Life is the definite combination of definite composite hetero 
geneous changes, both simultaneous and sucessive, in corres 
pondence with external co-existences and sequences. — Herbert 
Spencer. 

Common Mistakes. 

1. ( * We have no corporeal punishment here" said a 
teacher. Corporal means having a body. Corporeal is 
opposed to spiritual. Say, corporal punishment. 

2. " Set down and rest yourself ;" say, sit down. 

3. " Who do you mean /" say, whom. 

4. " lie has got my slate;" omit (jot. 

5. " Who done it f" say ivho did it. 

6. " / intended to have written a letter yesterday ;" say 
to write. 

7. "The girl speaks distinct ;" say distinctly. 

8. " He lives at New York ;" say in New York. 

9. " He made a great splurge;" say, lie made a blus- 
tering effort. The first savors of slang. 

10. "My brother lays ill of a fever;" should be my 
brother lies ill of a fever. 

Vulgarisms. 

The following words and expressions should be strietly 
avoided in conversation and in writing. Only a few of 
the many hundreds in use by uneducated people, will be 
noticed. 

1. " Acknowledge the corn," — instead of to admit. 

2. " Ain't," — instead of is not, or isn't. 

3 " Awful," — instead of ugly or difficult. 

4. " Beat out," — instead of tired. 

5. " Dreadful" — instead of very. 

G. " Hopping mad," — instead of very angry. 



130 LANGUAGE 

7. " Strapped," — wanting or out of money. 

8. " Wrathy," — instead of angry. 

9. Female, — incorrectly used to denote a female sex. 
To speak of a woman simply as a female, is ridiculous. 

The teacher should keep a record of all the mis- 
takes made by the pupils, and encourage them to do 
the same. Once a week these should be written on 
the board, and corrected by the pupils ; the teacher as- 
sisting when necessary. 

The pupils should be required to copy in a note-book 
the exercises in a form similar to the above. 

Let the pupils learn the correct way of speaking by a 
correct use of the term. Arbitrary rules are of little use 
in the bescinning. 

Remarks. 

The teacher, at first, will assist the pupils to classify 
subjects, draw outlines, and form correct tabulations. 
Questions may be used for a brief time, to teach classi- 
fication ; but should be cast aside as soon as possible. 
The teacher should always require pupils to hand in an 
outline of the subject. This plan will cultivate individ- 
uality and originality and give the pupils a training, 
intellectually, that will prove a great service in after 
life. 

As a special science, language is abstruse in character, 
applying mainly to reason ; hence it belongs to the 
advanced course. As an imitative art, it applies mainly 
to perception, hence it belongs in the primary course. 
Grammar is a special science, and should be taught 
through the use of it, rather than the use through the 
science. 



ih>\\ fO CONDUCT. A LESSON. IS I 

Closing Remarks on the Manner of Teaching 

Language. 

The teacher must not attempt to do any more than 
she can do well. It would not do, for instance, to select 
an object in which the properties to be illustrated were 
not well developed, nor an object with which the pupils 
were not familiar. 

Kvery lesson should be given in such a way as to 
draw out the perceptive powers of the pupil by leading 
him to reflect on what he sees, or to analyze the object 
before him. It is at first thought strange — although it 
is true — that powers are to be strengthened only by 
teaching the pupil to think upon what he sees. 

How to Conduct a Lesson. 

1. Prepare yourself beforehand on the subject, fixing 

in your mind exactly what subjects you will 
bring up, just what definitions and illustrations 
you will give or draw out of the class. 

2. Have the work marked and written down in the 

form of a synopsis. 

3. Use the board in all exercises ; write on it tech- 

nical words, classification of the knowledge 
brought out in the recitation, and whenever pos- 
sible, illustrative drawings. 

4. Whenever the subject is of such a nature as to 

allow it, the teacher should bring in real objects 
illustrative of it and encourage the children to do 
the same. 

5. Do not harden the pupil with too many new tech- 

nical phrasefl at a time, nor fall into the opposite 



132 LANGUAGE. 

error of using only the loose common vocabulary 
of ordinary life which lacks scientific precision. 

Recapitulation. 

To name once more in a brief manner the cardinal points to be kept 
in mind constantly by the teacher, 

1. Discuss the topics thoroughly. 

2. Do not overburden the pupil's memory. 

3. Do not distract his power of attention. 

4. Never take up a topic that you are unable to ex- 

plain and illustrate so clearly as to make the 
pupil understand it. 

5. Avoid all phases of the subject that will tend to 

confuse rather than enlighten. 

6. Draw out in a conversational way the experience 

and information which your scholars already pos- 
sess on the subject. 

7. Never omit to show by a synopsis on the board, 

what has been discussed in the lesson, its classi- 
fication and relation. 

8. Require short weekly compositions of the pupils, 

expressing in their own language their ideas on 
the subject. 

We have presented a few language lessons, sugges- 
tive, only, as to the manner of teaching. 

Teachers who have not taught language we would en- 
courage to begin, and make provision for it on the daily 
programme. 

Arithmetic, geography and reading do not form the 
sole basis of elementary education ; and some of the 
sad experiences of the past few years in speaking and 



TOPICS FOB i in; SCHOOL BOOM* 



IDS 



writing the English language, prove tbat the language 
should have a very prominent place in the programme. 



Topics for Brief Lectures in the School-Room. 

By spending ten or fifteen minutes each day, in a 
familiar, conversational lecture, upon some topic or ob- 
ject, selected from the following list, not only will the 
scholars be interested and learn many new truths in a 
way to remember them, but the teacher himself will 
derive great advantage from his preparation for such an 
exercise. Whenever it can be done, the means of illustra- 
tion should be hand, to demonstrate to the eye, and 
thus fasten upon the mind, the facts and reasoning of 
the lecturer. The curiosity of the pupils should be ex- 
cited, and questions and remarks from them encouraged, 
and by these means they will be led to closer habits of 
thought and observation. 



1. Glass. 

2. India-rubber. 

3. Leather. 

4. Sponge. 

5. Wool. 
0. Wax. 

7. Whalebone. 

8. Bread. 

9. Ivory. 

10. Chalk. 

11. A pin. 

12. A pencil. 

13. A brick. 

14. An acorn. 

15. A cork. 
10. A stone. 



IT. Cinnamon. 

18. Nutmeg. 

19. Ginger. 

20. Cloves. 

21. Water. 

22. Oil. 

23. Vinegar. 

24. Butter. 

25. Cheese 
20. Coffee. 

27. Tea. 

28. Kice. 

29. Paper. 

30. Cotton. 

31. Flax. 

32. Silk. 



33. Gold. 

34. Silver. 

35. Mercury, 
30. Lead. 

37. Copper. 

38. Iron. 

39. Tin. 

40. Lime. 

41. Coal. 

42. Granite. 

43. Salt. 

44. Slate. 

45. Feathers. 
4G. Coral. 

17. Gutta-percha. 
48. A piece of fur, 



134 LANGUAGE* 

1. Rotundity of the earth. 6. Phases of the moori. 

2. Sjjheroidal form of the 7. Tides. 

earth. 8. Eclipses. 

3. Origin and use of salt in 9. Electricity. 

the sea. 10. Mariner's compass. 

4. Commerce. 1 1. Circulation of the blood. 

5. The seasons. 

Questions for Debate. 

Is the farmer the most useful member of society ? 

Does wealth tend to exalt the human character? 

Has civilization increased human happiness? 

Are great men the greatest benefactors of the world ? 

Is intemperance a greater evil than war? 

Do inventions improve the conditions of the laboring 
classes? 

Is the expectation of reward a greater incentive to ex- 
ertion than the fear of punishment ? 

Do savage nations possess the right to the soil ? 

Is the mind of woman inferior to that of man ? 

Is the pen mightier than the sword ? 

Has increased wealth a favorable influence on the morals 
of the people ? 

Did the Crusaders benefit Europe ? 

Was the invention of gunpowder an evil ? 

Is the existence of political parties an evil ? 

Is the pulpit a better field for eloquence than the bar? 

Subjects foe Compositions. 
Spring. Blessings of Hope. 

Flowers. Flowers of Memory. 

A Thunder-storm. The Prairies. 

What becomes of the Rain. Unity in Diversity. 



COMPOSITION SUIUECTS. 



135 



Snow. 

Mountains. 

Forests. 

The Beauties of Nature. 

Our Country. 

The Study of History. 

Peace. 

War. 

The Ruins of Time. 

The Fickleness of Fortune. 

A Dream. 

A Ray of Light. 

A Drop of Water. 

Immutability of Change. 

Town and Country. 

Never Give Up. 

Benevolence. 

History of a Looking-Glass. 

Power of Mind. 

The Bible. 

The Ruins of Time. 

The Sunny Side. 

The Aurora Borealis. 

The Earth. 

The Shady Side. 

Human Genius. 

Aim High. 

Past and Present. 

Book of Nature. 

Hope On, Hope Ever. 

Nature 's Mysteries. 

The Contrast. 



The Starry Heavens. 
By -gone Hours. 
Immortality of the Soul. 
Influence of the Great and 

Good. 
Poetry of Nature. 
Music of Nature. 
Memory of our Fathers. 
Matter and Mind. 
The Stuff that Dreams are 

made of. 
Spring. 
The Seasons. 
Heat. 
Light, 

The Spirit of Discovery. 
The Art of Printing. 
Newspapers, 
Novelty. 
The Sun. 
The Rainbow. 
The Moon. 
The Stars. 

The Study of Geography. 
The Pleasures of Travelling. 
The Application of Steam. 
Rivers. 
To-morrow. 
'Phc Ocean. 
Manufactures. 
The Influence of Woman. 
Hero- worship. 



136 



LANGUAGE. 



Magic of Kindness 

Cost of Civility. 

Things that Cost Nothing. 

The Orphan. 

The Rolling Stone. 

Teachers. 

Loved Faces. 

We Bloom To-day ,To-mor- 
morrow Die ! 

The Wreath of Fame. 

Reflections of a Looking- 
glass. 

Early Companionship. 

Music of the Sea-shell. 

Letter from the Town. 

Letter from the Country. 

Tricks of Trade. 

Keepsakes. 

My Room-mate, 

The True Friend. 

What Shall we Read ? 

School Associations. 

Paddle Your Own Canoe. 

Star of Home. 

One by One. 

I've Wandered in Dreams. 

Philosophy of a Tear. 

Music of the Spheres. 

Oppression the Nursery of 
Reform. 

The Book. 

Peaceful Conquests. 



The True Hero. 

Sources of a Nation's 
Wealth. 

Commerce. 

Early Rising. 

Cheerfulness. 

The Uses of Biography. 

The Backwoodsman. 

Punctuality. 

Curiosity. 

Foppery. 

Gardening. 

Modern Delusions. 

Young America. 

The Multiplication of Books 

The Philosopher's Stone. 

Nature and Art. 

The Freedom of the Press. 

The Present 

The Past. 

The Future. 

Silent Influence. 

The Monuments of An- 
tiquity. 

Rome was not built in a 

day. 
The Frst Stroke is Half the 

Battle. 
Make Hay while the Sun 

Shines. 
Necessity is the Mother of 
Invention. 



REFERENCE BOOKS. 137 

A Picture of Fancy. A Soft Answer Turneth 

Leaflets of Memory. away Wrath. 

Silent Influence. Avoid Extremes. 

Reference Books. 

Verbal Pitfalls. A manual of 1,500 words com- 
monly misused, including all those the use of which in 
any sense has been questioned by Dean Alvord, G W. 
Moon, Fitzedward Hall, Archbishop Trench, Win. C. 
Hodgson, W. L. Blackley, G. F. Graham, Richard 
Grant White, M. Scheie de Vere, Win. Matthews, 
"Alfred Ayres," and many others. Arranged alpha- 
betically, with 3,000 references and quotations, and the 
rulings of the dictionaries. 16 mo. pp. 223. 15 cents. 

Outlines of Sentence Making. A brief course in 
composition. By C. W. Bardeen. 12 mo. pp. 187.60 cts. 

A System of Rhetoric. By 0. W. Bardeen. 12 mo. 
pp. 813. $1.50. 



Letter- Wf^iting, 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Good letter-writing is one of the main springs of bus- 
iness, and one of the strongest connecting links of com- 
mon life. It were to be wished that more attention 
were paid to the subject of letter-writing in our 
schools. In the present day, when ignorance is de- 
servedly at a discount, and when so much is expected of 
every one, even in a humble position in life, there is no 
reason why letters should furnish so many examples of 
outrageous grammar and absurd diction. 

A habit of expressing oneself distinctly, and ever 
without pretension, ought to be inculcated in early life. 

When the difficulties of spelling have once been con- 
quered, there will be little difficulty in enabling the 
pupil to acquire such simple forms of letter-writing 
as are necessary to the ordinary correspondence of busi- 
ness. 

In reference to the more polite correspondence, 
we do not suppose it can be of any great use 
to those whose personal gifts have been carefully 
improved by education, for "true ease in writing," 
as Pope says, "comes by art, not chance." 



INTRODUCTORY. 139 

But to many, whose opportunities have been less bril- 
liant, a few suggestions may be offered which may 
prevent being at a loss how to begin, or how to state a 
particular topic, and which, if not leading to the pro- 
duction of a good letter, may at all events prevent any- 
thing like positive awkwardness or inelegance. 

Greater attention will be given to the mechanical 
structure of a letter than to its literary finish. 

Those who wish to carry the subject to a greater 
extent, may receive aid from works upon Language and 
Letter Writing, among which Bardeen's Complete Rhet- 
oric ($1.50) is especially to be commended. 

The chief purpose of this chapter on Letter Writing, 
is to give a correct guide in the manner of mechanical 
detail and in the combination of the parts of a letter. 
It is hoped that this subject will receive attention, and 
that all the pupils who are not thoroughly familiar 
with it, may be taught now to write a letter. It is 
of more importance than the thousand-and-one facts 
taught in Geography, that are readily forgotten or the 
discipline received from multiplying x -f- y by x + y, as 
may be judged from the statistics of the Dead Letter 
Office, illustrated by a Washington correspondent as 
follows: 

One can hardly realize that there is a daily average 
of 12,000 or 15,000 dead letters, or about 400,000 a 
month. Allowing one person to a letter, there are over 
400,000 persons every month who undertake to send 
letters either without stamps, without addresses, or with 
cancelled stamps, insufficient postage, illegible or incor- 
rect addresses. Many of them are without either stamp 



140 LETTER WRITING. 

or address, and often with no signature which gives the 
slightest clue to persons sending them. There are 
40,000 a month received that either lack postage or 
address, or else have insufficient or cancelled stamps, 
and, strange as it may seem, these are sometimes the 
most valuable letters, often containing currency or drafts 
for large amounts of money. It is estimated that there 
is about $3,000,000 in drafts and about $75,000 in cash 
received yearly through dead letters. This is all 
returned, if possible, to the person sending it; but if 
any portion of it fails to find a claimant, it is turned 
over to the Post Office fund. 

Very litlle difficulty is experienced in restoring the 
checks and drafts to the rightful owners, but the money 
generally comes in small sums, and is usually sent in 
the most careless, haphazard fashion. The loss of these 
small sums represents a deal of suffering and disappoint- 
ment. Some hard working man may send $20, the 
savings of a month's labor, to his wife and little ones, 
whom he has had to leave behind him; but, alas, he is 
one of forty thousand who trust to Providence, without 
stamp or address, or else his writing or orthography are 
beyond mortal ken, and so the poor wife never gets the 
pittance which is her all. 

The paradise of fools, " to few unknown," is the 
mental comment as one sees the many evidences of 
peoples' carelessness, foolishness and stupidity which are 
displayed at the Dead Letter Office Museum. Arranged 
in glass cases on the four sides of the room are all these 
waifs of travel, displayed with a view to their respect- 
ive attractions, and suggestive of the treachery of 



DEAD LETTERS. l4l 

postage stamps and the adverse fate which sometimes 
overtakes even mail bags. There is everything known 
to the useful and ornamental; everything not smaller 
than a thimble or larger than a stovepipe hat. 

Such a pathetic array of might-have-beens, so eloquent 
of disappointments and blighted hopes! Locks of hair — 
there are whole switches of them — and as for photo- 
graphs, we are told there are forty bushels of them in 
the basement of the building. 

It is very amusing to see the letters opened, and guess 
at their contents before they are brought to light. 
Three out of five from a bundle of un ad dressed letters 
contained money, one of them a $5 note. Then there 
are such quantities of dress samples in letters. One 
would imagine that all womankind had discovered a 
language in the interchange of these fabrics. One half 
show their prosperity in bits of silks and satins, and the 
other half in slips of sixpenny calico, and it is only in 
the Dead Letter Office that they meet on common 
ground. Certainly every fifth letter contains a photo- 
graph, and I don't imagine that any great care is taken 
to return lost photographs; but any one so bereaved 
has the privilege of rummaging among the forty bushels 
of human " counterfeits " which have accumulated here. 

During November, 1876 more than 400,000 letters, 
newspapers and postal cards, were received for delivery 
by the letter carriers of New York city, of which 20,000 
were returned by them as an deliverable on account of 
incorrect and illegible superscriptions. Four millions 
and a half accumulate annually in the United States. 

From the above statistics, it is evident that the 
teacher should give instruction in Letter Writing. 



142 HOW TO TEACH LETTER- WRITING. 

It has been taken for granted, that pupils, who could 
parse and analyze a simple sentence, bound the states 
and territories, and explain an example in cube root, 
could write a passable letter ; but this is a mistake. A 
majority of our pupils are only able to do what has been 
taught to them, and that thoroughly. It is not enough 
to say to your pupils "that you should be able to write 
a good latter ;" you should teach them HOW TO 
WRITE A LETTER. 



Mow to Teach Letter-Writing. 



I. Directions, — 

1. Develop every part of the letter. 

2. Illustrate and explain each part on the board. 

3. Require pupils to copy the correct form. 

4. Require pupils to reproduce each part. 

5. Carefully examine the pupils' work. 

6. After all the parts of the structure of a letter have 
been taught thoroughly, and the pupils have been drilled 
sufficiently, require them to reproduce the whole correctly. 

7. Teach them how to place the superscription upon 
the envelope, and require them to hand in a letter prop- 
erly written, folded, inserted and carefully superscribed. 



GENERAL ANALYSIS. 143 

Lettek Writing. 

( a. Domestic. 
{ 1. Social. ( b. Introductory, etc. 

j a. Personal. 
| 2. Business. ( b. Official. 
Classi- ( I. Private ■{ 
jication\ | 3. Miscellaneous. 

of let- | 

ters. [ ^4. Postal Cards. 

II. Public or Open. 

Structure of Letters. 

( a. Size. 
f 1. Paper, -j b. Quality. 

( c. Color. 
| 2. Ink-Color. 

A. Materials. - - \ 

| 3. Envel- j a. Size. 
<>]>es. ( b. Color. 
( 4. Pen. 

f I. Position and Arrangement. 

f 1. Post-Office. \ No. 
| f 1. Place <j 2. County or \ St. 

I I City. 

B. Heading. { II. P'ts. { { 3. State. 

I I 

[2. Date. [ 1. Month. 

{ 2. Day of the Month. 

^III. Punctuation. [3. Year. 

{ I. Position and Arrangement. 

1 

( 1. Address. ( 1. Name it 

C. Introduction { II. Parts. \ \ Title. 

( 2. Salutation. ( 2. Dirct'n. 

[I. Punctuation. ( 1. Business. 

V. Model. 1 2. Social and Mis- 

f cellaneous. 



144 



LETTER-WRITING. 



{ 1. Beginning. 

D. Body of the Let- { II. The Margin, 
ter. 

[ III. Paragraphing. 

r I. Position and Arrangement. 



E. Conclusion. 



F. Folding. 



{ 1. Complimentary Close. 
\ II. Parts \ 2. Signature. 
[3. Address. 

| 

[ III. Punctuation. 



[ I. Position and Arrangement. 



| II. Parts, i 1. Name and Title. 
G. Superscrip- \ \ (1. Postoffice 

tion. | HI. Pimc- ( 2. Direc'n. \ 2. County, 

tuation. ( 3. State. 

^ IV. Legibility. 

( 1. Place. 
IT. Stamps. -j 

( 2. How put on. 

" How shall I teach the pupil to write a letter ? " 
Try the following method : — Ask him, — 

1. What are you going to write about ? Get the real 
fact or incident, and have him write it down in proper 
form, as his subject. 

2. What is the first thing you wish to tell about ? 
Tell him to write that down by itself, as he wishes to 
tell it. Proceed thus, with the several items, 2d, 3d, 
and so on, till he thinks of nothing more. So far, you 
have the material. Now for the order. Ask him, — 

3. Which of these really ought to come first ? If he 



HOW TO TEACH IT. 145 

hits on the right one, have him number it 1. It he is 
wrong, point out the right item. Proceed in the same 
way to find the proper second item, and so on to the 
end. This settles the order. Now consider the para- 
graphs. Ask, — 

4. Which of these seem to belong together in a 
group ? Have them numbered a second time, as ^[ 1,2, 
etc. Show the proper method for spacing the first lines 
of paragraphs. Attend next to the expression. Ask, — 

5. What ungrammatical words or expressions do you 
find ? Whatever such he finds, correct by interlining. 
Such as he fails to find, point out and have corrected. 

6. What long words can be changed for short, simple 
words, or those in better taste ? Have the changes 
made by interlining. Next, consider the capitals and 
punctuation. Ask, — 

7. What words should begin with capitals ? Have 
these marked. 

8. Where do we want a full separation ? Have the 
period inserted. And so proceed, if other points are 
needed. 

Now require a complete draught to be made. When 
this is done, examine and correct it under the pupil's close 
observation, explaining the corrections made. Lastly, 
require a carefully written copy according to the cor- 
rections. 

Classification of Letters. 

The classification given in the tabulation should be 
written on the board and explained by the teacher. 

The names of the classes are so plainly descriptive as 
to render formal definitions unnecessary. 



1 46 letter- writing. 

Structure of Letters. 

This means an arrangement of its several parts, so as 
to present a pleasing appearance. 

Materials. 

Paper. — The materials for letter writing should be 
of good quality. Good materials cost only a trifle more 
than poor ones. The paper for business correspondence 
should be white or tinged with blue. The size of the 
paper should be adapted to the size of the envelope to 
be used. 

In business correspondence, it is not in good taste to 
use tinted or colored paper. 

Ink. — Avoid the use of all fancy inks, and use simple 
black ; all other colors fade. 

Envelopes. — Do not use envelopes of irregular and 
fancy shape, and let them be adapted in size and color, 
to the paper. 

Sealing-Wax. — This is now principally used on val- 
uable letters and packages. It adds very much to the 
appearance of a letter to seal it neatly with wax. 

Heading. 

The heading includes the place and date. If your 
letter is to consist of one page only, the proper position 
for the heading is on the first line. If less than one 
page, proportionately lower; so that the space at the 
bottom of the page may be equal to the space at the 
top. Begin the heading a little to the left of the mid- 
dle of the page, and if it is too long to be placed within 
the limit of a half line, let it be extended for completion 
to the next line below. It usually occupies two lines, 



HOW TO TEACH IT. 147 

but never more than three; when two lines are used the 
second should begin farther to the right than the first. 
Business letters should always be dated at the top; 
some place the date at the bottom; this form is used 
more generally in social correspondence. When placed 
at the bottom it must be near the left edge of the paper, 
one line below the signature. 

Place. — The heading of a letter should be self-ex- 
plaining. The name of the State and County should 
be expressed, unless the letter is addressed to a very 
large city, like New York or Boston. If the letter is 
written in a city, the street and number should be ex- 
pressed. The heading should be full and complete, so 
that when a person answers the message, he may know 
where to send it. 

Date.— The date includes the month, day of the 
month, and the year; if letters are used after the fig- 
ures, let them be placed on a line with the figures, and 
not a little above the line. The best letter writers omit 
the letters after the figures, although it is by no means 
improper to use them. 

Punctuation. — The parts of the Heading should be 
separated by commas, and a period should be placed at 
the close of the Heading and after abbreviations. The 
ordinal adjectives 1st, 5th, 27th, are not abbreviations, 
and they should be followed by a comma. The Head- 
ing is an abridged form of sentence, composed of 
phrases, and phrases are usually setoff by commas. 

Remarks. 

The teacher should write, or have written, on the 

board the correct form of the heading of a letter, call- 



148 LETTER-WRITING. 

ing attention to the position and arrangement of the 
parts, capital letters, and punctuation. He should re- 
quire the pupils to copy the correct form on their slates, 
spell the words, and give the correct arrangement and 
position of all the parts. 

Various Headings should be given by the teacher un- 
til the pupils are thoroughly familiar with them. A few 
lessons methodically given, will secure mastery. 



Models of Heading, 



Model 1. 






J$m<i/elaam, 



Model 2. 



<Lyvi#M/<z#m€iM too. , 



tmcmem 




feme //, /<#& 



models of heading. 149 

Model 8. 




^J/aic/i .2/, /S$<7. 



Model 4. 



656 ty//caa{4on J3w., J$wawu, 

ffi*e 22, Jfy. 



Model 5. 

22 Clinton Street, 

Troy, N. T. t May 11, 1877. 



Introduction. 

Position. — The names of the persons to be addressed 
should be given on the Line below the heading, at the 

right and near the marginal line. It may occupy one, 
two, or three lines. The first line of the address should 
contain the name and title alone; it should begin even 
with all the lines of the page, except the heading and 
those that commence paragraphs. 



150 LETTER-WRITING. 

Direction, — The direction should be as full in the 
address as in the heading; the letter should be self -ex- 
plaining; it should contain not only the name and 
residence of the writer, but also the name and residence 
of the person to whom it is written. 

The American form of correspondence places the 
address before the salutation, except in letters of an 
official character; then it is placed at the close of the 
letter, at the left of the signature: this corresponds with 
the English style. 

Name and Title. 

The name should be written in full; for example, we 
write to J. C. Knox, Colorado Springs, Colorado; as it 
stands now it may mean James C. Knox or Jennie C. 
Knox. It is better, unless the party is well known, to 
write the full Christian name, and not the initials of the 
name. Too much pains cannot be taken in the address of 
letters and the superscription of envelopes. In New 
York city there are two hundred persons by the name 
of John Smith ; in order to avoid confusion and allay 
the passion of mail carriers, it would be better for all 
correspondents to write the full name, the proper title and 
the name and the number of the street. 

Title. — The common titles are Mr., Mrs., Miss and 
Esq. Mr. is an abbreviation of Mister; Mrs. is an abbre- 
viation ot Mistress, but pronounced Misses, which is 
written Mrs.; Miss is not considered an abbreviation, 
but a contraction, from the word Mistress. When this 
title is applied to two or more ladies of the same name, 
both forms are used by grammarians, Mm and Misses; 



SAU TATIONS. 151 

the latter may l>e considered as the prevailing usage. 
Esq. is an abbreviation of Esquire. 

Salutation. — This term should never be omitted; 
it expresses politeness, respect or affection. The term 
employed in writing to a man is Sir, Bear Sir, or My 
dear Sir. 

The word Dear implies that the parties are acquainted; 
My dear Sir, suggest intimacy or friendship. 

In addressing a married woman, the following form 
is usual, including the title and christian name of the 

husband: 

Mrs. Dr. J. J. Anderson, 

105 Madison Avenue, 

Albany, N. Y. 
Madam — 

In the use of the salutation, it is better to be too 
form nl than too familiar. 

To use a term of affection when no endearment 
exists between the parties, is highly improper. It is 
assuming undue familiarity, not warrantable in business 
correspondence. Such a term prefixed to the name 
addressed as, 2)^r Brown, or Friend Hayes, is not usual 
in business messages. 

The salutation used in addressing a womar, either 
married or single, is Madam, Dear Madam, or My dear 
Madam. In writing to a young unmarried lady, it is 
customary to omit the salutation and address her with 
the title prefixed to her surname, with the address at 
the 1 mi torn of the letter, at the left. 

J. Willis Westlake says, " In writing to a lady who 
is ji stranger or a mere acquaintance, persons often feel 
a delicacy (unnecessarily so, it seems to us,) about say- 



152 LETTEE-WRITING:. 

ing'Dear Miss Blank,' or ' Dear Madam.' Dear does 
not mean any more in ' Dear Miss,' than it does in 
'Dear Sir.' Surely no lady would hesitate to use the 
latter form of address in writing to a gentleman of her 
acquaintance ; and the gentleman would be a fool to 
suppose she intended to make love to him by so doing. 
When Miss or Dear Miss is used in the introduction it 
must be followed by the lady's name ; as 'Miss Flora 
May,' ' Dear Miss Barnes.' " 

We should use the full form in the salutation ; as, 
Gentlemen, not Gents j Sir, not Sr.; Bear, and not Dr. 

Place of the Salutation. — The salutation should 
begin at the same distance from the marginal line as 
the paragraphs. 

If the address is omitted at the beginning of the let- 
ter, the salutation should be placed on the first line 
below the heading, a little to the right of the margin, 
so that the places of beginning the paragraphs may be 
uniform and correspond to the salutation. 

Punctuation. — Place a period at the end of the ad- 
dress. The address and the salutation are not in the 
same grammatical person, the address being in the third 
person, and the salutation in the second. 

Authorities disagree about the punctuation mark 
after the salutation. 

Some place a colon ; some a semicolon ; and others 
a comma. The best authorities use the comma, when 
the body of the letter begins one line below the saluta- 
tion, and a comma and a dash when the body of the let- 
ter begins on the same line as the salutation. In the 
English form of letter writing, the salutation, simply, is 
placed at the beginning of the body of the letter, and 



K KM AUKS. 15o 

the address at the close of the letter, a little at the left. 

This form is used in America by correspondents, and 
it is believed that the best usage sanctions it. 

Margin. — Always preserve a margin in letters, and 
in all forms of manuscripts. The French preserve two 
margins, one at the left, and one at the right ; this 
adds to the appearance of the letter, making it cor- 
respond with the printed page ; in America only the 
left margin is retained. The introduction to social and 
miscellaneous letters, in form, is just the same as to busi- 
ness letters. 

Remarks. 

All of the above points in the introduction of a let- 
ter, should be neatly written on the board. The teacher 
should call attention to each part, its exact form and 
place. 

He should require the pupils to copy the correct form 
on their slates ; and upon review, require them to spell 
the words, give correct position and arrangement of 
all the parts, and punctuate the introduction correctly. 
At this point in the instruction review the heading and 
the introduction. 

It is delightful to be able to write a good letter, and 
it is a pleasure to read one. In this, li^e every other 
accomplishment, " practice makes perfect," and pupils 
should at once Bet to work with a determination to con- 
quer tin' difficulties of writing. 



154 letter-writing. 

Models of Inuroduction, 



Model 1. 



2-4 wamanae tsUeet, 
muemen; 




Model 2. 



^4imU. uooia a ^Jau/oi, 



5~4(7 t^Sioaawau, 



'2/jmi <lMU, 



tJvew t/oin. 



c/oui /ami, etc. 



models of introduction. 155 

Model 3. 



5SU TKm, 



nave me A&nei, dc. 



z-yvUdd <_/()&//, 



Model 4. 



I'fte aie m itcafit a 







icviaeutCj <-S&> . t/. 



Model 5. 

Cleat mna /awi, t/c. 



156 letter- writing. 

English Introduction, 



Model 1. 

Dear Sir, — 

Yours was received, etc. 

Mr. James Doe, 

25 Benton Street, 
Albany, N. Y. 



Model 2. 

Gentlemen, 

Send me 500 barrels of Sugar, 
etc. 

Dexter fy Jones, 
21 Broadway, 
Albany, K. T- 



The Body of the Letter. 

The body of the letter is composed of two parts, 
properly; the Beginning, and the Paragraphs. It is the 
message itself, exclusive of the heading, introduction and 
conclusion. 

The Beginning. — When the address occupies two or 
more lines, the body of the letter should begin directly 
after the salutation, and on the same line; when the 
salutation is simply used at the beginning of the letter, 
the body of the letter should begin on the next line be- 
low, a little to the right of the salutation. The saluta- 
tion should never be placed so far to the right of the 



THE CONCLUSION. 157 

sheet of paper, as to leave room for only one or two 
words after it. 

Paragraphing. 

The same rules should govern us in writing, as in 
printing, with the exception of the right margin. The 
paragraph should always be used, when necessary. It 
indicates the beginning of a new subject, or of different 
and disconnected things. 

The first word of a paragraph begins farther to the 
right than the beginning: of the other lines. The first 
word of the first paragraph commences after the salu- 
tation; the first word of the second paragraph should 
fall directly under the salutation, and so on with the 
remaining paragraphs. All paragraphs should begin at 
the same distance from the marginal line. Preserve 
this order and it will improve the mechanical structure of 
the letter. 

The Conclusion. 

The conclusion of a letter is the part added to the 
body of the letter. 

Position and Arrangement. — It should be placed at 
the foot of the letter. 

Complimentary Close. — This includes the language, 
the closing compliments; it should begin a little to the 
right, but near the middle of the first line below the 
body of the letter, about the same distance from the 
marginal line as the heading. They may be broken 
into two lines, but it is not necessary. 

If composed of two lines, the second should com- 



158 LETTER- WRITING. 

mence a little to the right of the first; commence the 
first line with a capital letter, also the second. 

Signature.— In writing the signature, begin a little 
at the right of the complimentary close, on the next line 
below. A letter should always be signed in a legible 
hand, and with accuracy, symmetry, uniformity and 
neatness. The full name should be written. Thousands 
of letters are dropped into the post offices having no 
name subscribed. It is well to write the address under 
the signature if you wish an answer to your letter; par- 
ticularly if your letter is mailed at some other point 
aside from your regular residence. 

Punctuation. — A comma should be placed after the 
complimentary close, and a period after the signature. 



Conclusion. 

i 



For social letters, the following forms are used : 

Your friend ; Yours with esteem ; 
Yours respectfully ; Yours very sin- 
cerely, etc. 



For business letters, the following forms are 
used : 

Yours truly ; Yours respectfully ; 
Yours very truly ; Yours, 



i in-: CONCLUSION. 159 

FOB OFFICIAL LETTERS : 

/ have the honor to be, Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

a l. 



I have the honor to be, 

Very respectfully, 
Your most obedient servant, 

h. a D. 



I am, Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

S. H. 

Very respectfully, 

Your obedient servant, 



Folding. — Neatly folding a letter will add very much 
to it- appearance. This is a simple thing, but it should 
be learned. 

Notk Paper. — Fold up the bottom so that it shall bo 
nearly equal to the width of the envelope, (supposing 
that the envelope is adapted to the paper,) turndown 
the top in the same manner, ami press the folds neatly 
together. 



I 00 LETTER- WRITING. 

Letter-Paper. — Turn the bottom edge up so that it 
shall be nearly equal to the length of the envelope; 
then proceed in the same manner as above. 

This form may be observed in folding for an ordinary 
envelope ; if the letter is to be enclosed in an official en- 
velope it must be folded thus : Turn up the lower edge 
equal to the width of the envelope, and fold the top 
down over it. 



Form for Social Letter. 



Albany , Jan. lg, 1884. 
My dear Sister, 

Your letter makes me perfectly happy. 
I have so much to tell you } and so much to hear 
from you, too (0 you sly puss ; a little bird has 
told me all about him ! ) that I can hardly 
wait for Wednesday and three o ! clock. You 
ivill see my face first of all at the depot, and 
don't let the train be late. 

Till then, and always, 

Your loving sister, 

Mary (Perkins. 
Miss Zulu Perkins, 

Granger Place School, 

Canandaigua, N. Y. 



rm: SUPERSCRIPTION. 161 

Business Letter. 



Albany, Jf. Y ., May 28 ', 1884. 
Supt. 0. (B. (Bruce, 

(Binghamton, Jtf. Y. 
Sir , = =Y ours of May 26 is duly received. It 
gives me pleasure to inform you that I shall 
be able to accompany you on the proposed ex= 
cursion next August. 

Yours very respectfully, 

William Watson, 

288 Madison Ave., 

Albany, JV. Y. 



Superscription. 

We have finished the letter and are now ready to 
superscribe it. This superscription is written on the out- 
side of the envelope. It consists of the name and title, 
post-office, county and state. 

Position. — Every item must be on a separate line. 
The first line, consisting of the name and title, should 
begin below and at the left of the center ; the second 
should begin a little further to the right ; the third a 
a little further than the second, and so on. 



162 LETTER-WRITING. 

The spaces between the lines and the space below the 
last, should be equal. 

Great pains should be taken in writing the superscrip- 
tion, and the full form should always be used. Each 
part should be written legibly. It is always the safer 
way to express the name of the county, unless the letter 
is directed to a large city. 

Punctuation. — Place a period after abbreviations ; 
when the abbreviation is at the end of a line, place a 
comma after each line, and a period at the close. 

Stamp. 

A stamp should always be placed upon the envelope. 
It should be placed upon the upper right-hand corner, 
about a sixteenth of an inch from the upper and the 
right edges. Pains should be taken to put it on care- 
fully. 



Form of Superscription 



n^i. C Sj.ia Wiffieij 



<9i 



eneea ^aud^ 



Mm fed. 



FORM OF SUPERSCRIPTION. 163 

£0*3 £//; tStfuentw, 



ty&ecned&i. 






enetee (oo. 






164 letter-writing. 

Practical Hints on Letter Writing. 

Thus far in the discussion of the subject of letter wri- 
ting, we have called attention to the structure of the let- 
ter, the mechanical part. Simple as it may seem, it 
will require study on the part of those teachers who are 
not familiar with it. There are two other divisions 
important in themselves, the Rhetoric of Letters and the 
Literature of Letters, which should be made a careful 
study. We cannot give them an extended discussion, 
but will throw out a few practical hints. 

Interlineations. — This is a habit, and must be over- 
come. The insertion of letters or words exhibits to the 
reader a degree of carelessness, that is not excusable. 

Copy and re-copy until every part of the letter 
pleases the eye. An hour or two devoted to careful 
copying will secure the result. 

Blots. — Never allow a blot to be seen in your letters; 
it is slovenly. 

Flourishes. — Avoid nourishing in letter writing; it 
is indicative of a kind of a dash and display character. 
A person of this stamp would be quite apt to wear an 
Alaska diamond pin, alligator boots, steel-pen coat, 
part his hair in the middle, and use a slim cane. 

Cross-lines. — If it is necessary to write more matter 
than can be properly placed on the pages of a letter, 
use another sheet of paper. There is no excuse for the 
person to write on the margins of the sheet and over 
the body of the letter. It is in very poor taste, to say 
the least. 

Underlinings. — In reading, certain words are em- 



FIGURES FOR WORDS. 165 

phatic, and when properly emphasized increase the inten- 
sity of the thought. 

In writing, it also adds force to the expression to 
underline certain words; but indiscriminate underlining 
ceases to add effect. 

Erasures. 

Avoid erasures; it indicates a lack of interest and 
attention to the subject. The same rules should hold 
good in writing as in printing. 

It disfigures the letter and it is a sign of carelessness, 
and it is always the better to re-write the letter, if 
there is time, than to send it subject to the criticisms 
of others. 

Postscript. 

This is something added to a letter after it is property 
finished, and should generally be avoided. 

When the writer has received new information after 
the letter is finished, it may then be added. It is not 
lust to get into the habit of appending postscripts. No 
topic of importance, compliment or affection, should 
be expressed in the postscript. 

The Character &. 

The character & may be used between the surnames 
of a business firm or between the initial letters of 
( Ihristian names; but as a rule it should not be employed 
t<> take the place of the word for which it stands. 

Figures for Words. 

Figures are used for dates, time of day, rates, quan- 
tities, prices, and in bills, book-keeping, aggregate 



l6(> LEtTER-WRlTlNT&. 

amounts, etc. In commercial paper it is best to use 
both figures and words. 

Lead Pencil Writing. 

Business letters are generally preserved, and as 
lead pencil marks are easily blurred or erased, it is 
not business-like to use the lead pencil in correspond- 
ence. 

Bombast. 

Use the simplest terms; fine words are not used by 
educated people: it is immature persons that like 
to avoid simple nouns, and resort to pompous expres- 
sion and parade of language. 

The language of simplicity should characterize all 
correspondence. 

Slang Words. 

The words we use are an index to the mind and heart. 
Your letter will be accepted as a type of your mind and 
an index to your thoughts. No gentleman or lady will 
resort to the use of slang terms. Slang phrases are ut- 
terly inconsistent with true dignity of thought, word or 
deed. 

Foreign Words. 



It is not considered a good taste to use foreign words, 
unless necessity requires them. It is better to use pure 
English. 



Tautology. 






This is quite common with experienced writers ; 
when a fact has been stated once, — the point made dis- 



GENERAL REMARKS. 167 

tinctly and clearly, it only confuses the idea, to attempt 
a repitition. 

General Remarks. 

Few people ever learn to write with telling effect. If 
they would just plainly say what they think, without 
roundabout phases, and without being haunted at every 
step with the thought of saying fine things, and the ne- 
cessity of moving on stilts in order to show style, they 
would be more interesting and effective. William Cul- 
len Bryant once made the following sensible remarks 
to a young man who had offered an article for the New 
York Evening Post : 

" My young friend, I observe that you have used 
several French expressions in your letter. I think if 
you will study the English language, that you will find 
it capable of expressing all the ideas that you may 
have. I have always found it so, and in all that I have 
written I do not recall an instance where I was tempted 
to use a foreign word, but that, on searchiug, I have 
found a better one in my own language. 

" Be simple, unaffected ; be honest in your speaking and 
writing. Never use a long word when a short one will 
do as well. 

" Call a spade by its name, not a well-know r n oblong 
instrument of manual labor ; let a home be a home, and 
not a residence ; a place, not a locality ; and so on of 
the rest. When a short word will do, you always lose 
by a long one. You lose in clearness ; you lose in 
honest expression of meaning ; and, in the estimation of 
all men who are capable of judging, you lose in reputa- 
tion for ability. 



168 LETTER-WRITItf G. 

"The only true way to shine, even in the false world, 
is to be modest and unassuming. Falsehood may be a 
thick crust, but in the course of time truth will find a 
place to break through. Elegance of language may not 
be in the power of us all, but simplicity and straightfor- 
wardness are. 

" Write much as you would speak, and as you think. 
If with your inferior, speak no coarser than usual ; if 
with your superior, speak no liner. Be what you say 
and within the rules of prudence. No one was ever a 
gainer by singularity of words or in pronunciation. 
The truly wise man will so speak that no one will ob- 
serve how he speaks. A man may show great knowl- 
edge of chemistry by carrying bladders of strange gases 
to breathe ; but one will enjoy better health, and find 
more time for business, who lives on common air." 

Sidney Smith once remarked : "After you have writ- 
ten an article, take your pen and strike out half the 
words, and you will be surprised to see how much 
stronger it is." 

To Those Who Write for the Press. 

It would be a great favor to editors and printers, 
should those who write for the press observe the follow- 
ing rules. They are reasonable, and correspondents 
will regard them as such : 1. Write with black ink, on 
white paper, wide ruled. 2. Make the pages small, one 
fourth that of a foolscap sheet. 3. Leave the second 
page of each leaf blank. 4. Give to the written page 
an ample margin all around. 5. Number the pages in 
the order of their succession. 6. Write in a plain, bold 
hand, with less respect to beauty. 7. Use no abbrevia- 






WRITE WHAT YOU THINK. 169 

tions which are not to appear in print. 8. Punctuate 
the manuscript as it should be printed. 

Letter Writing a Matter of Habit. 

Our letter writing is very much a matter of habit, 
and for that reason it is important that young people 
should learn early to consider it a pleasant way of com- 
municating thoughts and feelings to their friends, in- 
stead of a burdensome task to be got over as quickly as 
possible. 

We often hear people excuse themselves by saying 
that they have no "gift for writing letters," as though 
it were something like an ear for music, only accorded 
to a favored few. But the truth is that any one can 
write interesting and pleasant letters who will take a 
little trouble and really persevere in the effort. The 
grand difficulty in the way is that they are too selfish 
and too indolent to try. Nothing that is worth any- 
thing comes without effort, and if you do not care 
enough about gratifying your friends to take a little 
pains for it, you deserve never to receive any letters 
yourselves. 

" Write What You Think." 

" Do not think what to write ; write what you think," 
is an old rule, and a good one to remember. If you are 
away from home, it is very selfish not to share your 
good times with the family by writing frequent letters. 
You can tell what you are enjoying so much better 
while it is fresh in your mind, than you can after your 
return, when you may not have leisure to go over the 
whole ground ; and these home letters may be a means 



170 LETTER- WRITING. 

afterward of refreshing your own memory, and remind- 
ing you of incidents which you would otherwise have 
forgotten. There are many other things which might 
be said here, but this will do for the ]n*esent. A very 
good rule for letter writing is the golden one, " Do as 
you would be done by." 

Write on One Subject at a Time. 

Write all that you have to say on one subject at once. 
That is, do not begin to tell about your garden and 
then about your school; and then about your garden 
again ; but finish one subject before you begin another. 
Do not be afraid of using the pronoun I. Some people 
avoid it and thus give their sentences a shabby and un- 
finished sound, as " Went to Boston — called on Mrs. 
Smith." Never apologize for what you write, by saying 
that you do not like to write letters. You would not 
think it quite polite in visiting a friend, to say, " I do 
not like to talk to you, so I shall not say much." Keep 
the idea before you that you are writing for the sake of 
giving pleasure to your friend. 

When your letter is merely an inquiry, or on a matter 
of business, the case is different. You then should try 
to be as brief, concise and clear as possible. An elab- 
orately drawn out business letter is as out of place as it 
inconsiderate. 

Writing Letters is Simply Talking. 

Do not consider anything too trivial to write about 
which you would think worth mentioning in conversa- 
tion. Writing letters is simply talking upon paper, and 
your friends will be much more entertained by the nar- 



ALWAYS WRITE LEGIBLY. 171 

ration of little every-day affairs than by profound ob- 
servations upon topics which you care nothing about. 

In writing to very intimate friends, who will be inter- 
ested in the details of your daily life, it is well some- 
times to make your letters a sort of diary — telling some- 
thing of how you have spent each day since you wrote 
last ; what books you have been reading, what letters 
you have received from mutual friends, and what you 
have seen or heard that has interested you. 
Finish What You Begin. 

You will find it more easy to reply to a letter soon 
after you get it than if you neglect it for a few weeks, 
because you will have the impressions which the first 
reading made upon your mind. Tell your friend when 
you received the letter which you are answering, and 
take up the topics in the order which they naturally 
come, remembering to answer all the questions which 
have been asked. Try to think what your friend would 
like best to hear about, and when you undertake to tell 
anything do not leave it half told, but finish the story. 
People who are not careful about this often give a false 
impression without meaning to do so. For instance, 
one of these careless writers, in giving an account of a 
lire, simply stated that the house was burned, without 
giving any qualifications, thus giving the impression 
that it was entirely consumed, and causing a whole 
family much unnecessary trouble and anxiety, as the 
actual burning in question was very slight. 

Always write Legibly. 
A few simple rules, carefully observed, will help you 
over some of the things which you call difficulties. In 



172 LETTER-WRITING. 

the first place, always write distinctly. It destroys niuch 
of the pleasure in receiving a letter if it cannot be 
read without puzzling over every word. Many an epis- 
tle, written on heavy cream-laid paper, with a monogram 
at the top, is only an annoyauce to the one to whom it 
is addressed, on account of pale ink and careless hand- 
writing. 

Be particular in the matter of dating, giving every 
item distinctly, and sign the letter with your full name. 
If this habit is formed, you will not run the risk of los- 
ing valuable letters, which cannot be forwarded from 
the Dead Letter office unless accompanied with the full 
address. 

Letters should be Read Carefully, Folded and 

Endorsed. 

All letters received in a manufacturing, mercantile, or 
trading establishment, should, when read, be carefully 
folded and endorsed, with the name of the correspond- 
ent, the date of writing, the date of receipt; with a 
blank left for the date of the answer. For example : 

"New York, March 10, 1857. 
" Williamson, Thompson, & Co. 

"Received March 12. 

"Answered." 
Many persons, not much accustomed to use the pen, 
have a notion that if any occasion happens to call for 
a letter on any business matter, they must immediately 
compose a tedious rigmarole of statements and explana- 
tions; and, finding it difficult to make up what they con- 
sider a " capital letter," they defer writing until the 
occasion is perhaps gone, or at least until the business in 



CAREFUL PENMANSHIP. 1V3 

hand has suffered considerable injury by the delay. But 
if they would divest their minds of all ideas of literary 
composition, and just write what they would say, and in 
the fewest possible words, such persons would find bus- 
iness correspondence agreeable rather than irksome. 

Originality. 

Letter writing furnishes a good opportunity for the 
display of originality, individuality. 

The letter will be a representative of the writer, not 
of anybody else. 

Do not use the hackneyed form, — 

" Dear friend, — 

" I now take my pen in hand to let you know thai I am well, 
and hope you are enjoying the same blessing." 

Purity of Language. 

Always use chaste language. The language reveals 
the state of the mind, and the heart, — pure language 
shows a pure heart. 

Careful Penmanship. 

On the subject of penmanship M. Ernest Legouve 
tells his granddaughter: " The people who praise you 
to your face and laugh at you behind your back, say, 
'Ah! all clever people write badly.' Answer by show- 
ing them, as I have shown you a hundred times, letters 
of Guizot, Mignet, and Alexander Dumas the elder, 
which are models of caligraphy. Write well, my child, 
write well! Pretty writing in a woman is like tasteful 
dressing, a pleasing physiognomy, or a sweet voice." 



1v4 letter writing. 

Letters of Apologies, Favors, etc. 

In apologizing for misconduct, failing to meet an 
engagement, or for lack of punctuality, always state the 
reason; letters of excuse should be written as promptly 
as possible. 

In asking favors, do not urge the claims too strongly. 
Should a refusal be the result, the humiliation will be 
felt deeply. 

Letters refusing favors, should be kindly worded, and 
should state the reason. 

Style and Manner. 

The expression of language should be as nearly as 
possible the same as the writer would use in speech. 

A letter is only a conversation on paper. The style 
of writing will depend upon the terms of intimacy 
existing between the parties. 

If to a superior, it should be respectful; to an inferior, 
courteous; to a friend, familiar; to a relative, affec* 
tionate. 

A letter should be couched in such language as will 
best secure the respect and consideration of the person 
with whom the writer corresponds. 

The writer has only to use perfect naturalness of 
expression in ordar to be able to write a letter well. 

Hints. 

In writing a letter, the answer to which is of more 
benefit to yourself than the person to whom you write, 
enclose a stamp for the reply. This may seem to be a 
small matter, but business firms usually adopt it, and it 
is only just. 



HINTS. 175 

A letter of introduction, or recommendation, should 
never be sealed, as the bearer to whom it is sent ought 
to be presumed to know the contents. 

As a rule, every letter, unless insulting in its lan- 
guage, requires an answer. To neglect to answer a 
letter is an uncivil act. 

Business letters must be pithy, short, and go straight 
to the point. Pleasantry is not advisable. It is best 
carefully to distinguish letters of business and of friend- 
ship. 

Every paragraph should be marked by extreme clearness 
and perspicuity ; so clear and unambiguous that the dull 
est person may be able to understand, exactly. 

This clearness implies correctness, without excluding 
elegance of style. 

For the sake of perspicuity, careful attention to 
punctuation is necessary. 

All intercourse between parents and children should 
be free and confidential. 

Avoid verbiage and use as few words as possible. 

Read your letter carefully when finished, to see that 
you have made no omissions or mistakes. 

Do not make the mistake of insinuating that a mis- 
fortune is the mistake of a friend. Better leave the let- 
ter unwritten. 

Be very sparing of letters of advice. As a rule, every 
person has enough to do to attend to his own business; 
and, as a general thing, advice even when solicited is 
liable to give offence. 

Addkkssks. 

A friendly correspondence once established must not 
relapse into mere formalities, unless a decided quarrel 



176 LETTER-WRITING. 

and separation have taken place. Small differences or 
disagreements are never to make any change in your 
modes of address and expression, for there is nothing 
meaner than the severing of the obvious ties of friend- 
ship for trifles, though such things do take place every 
day. It should be remembered that neither friendship 
nor cordial acquaintanceship interfere in any way with 
a person's opinions or conduct, so long as the universal- 
ly recognized principles of honor and morality are not 
violated. You may some day have to oppose your 
friend at a caucus meeting, or in a warm discussion on 
religion or politics ; yet his aversion to your views, and 
your impetuous opposition to his, are not to prevent you 
writing, "My dear Harry," or "My dear Tompkins," or 
"My dear Sir," as you did before the difference broke 
out. Depend upon it there is nothing more contempt- 
tible than to taint the amenities of social life with exhi- 
bitions of temper or vexation, or to suffer the pen to ex- 
press unfriendly sentiments or greetings of a suddenly 
cool character, because some trifling difference has 
arisen between yourself and your friend. 

Here it should be hinted that whatever mode you 
adopt in addressing a person, is to be preserved in 
future correspondence, if not in exactly the same words, 
at least the same in purport ; you must not go back ex- 
cept for a special reason, but you may go forward with 
a proper grace as intimacy ripens, and increase the 
warmth of your congratulations. 

We remember an incident which may be mentioned 
in illustration of this. A gentleman had been for many 
years on terms of intimate friendship with his tailor, 
and the correspondence between them, whether of a 



COMPLIMENTARY ADDRESSES. 177 

friendly or a business nature, had always a Cordial tone 
pervading it, until on one occasion the friendship was 
Blightly interrupted. In fact, the gentleman was a 
little in arrear as to the settlement of his friend's ac- 
count, and the latter sent a short and brusque lelter, as 
follows: 
"Sir, 

"I am disappointed in not having received the amount of my 
bill as promised by you in your last ; may I beg the favor of a 
speedy settlement ? Yours obediently, 

" Simon Slowstitch." 

To this an answer was returned as follows : 
"My dear Slowstitch, 

" Last time you wrote I owed }'ou nothing, and you addressed 
me as your ' Dear Nonplus ;' but since I have unfortunately failed 
to meet your demand, according to my own promise, you reduce 
me to a mere ' Sir,' upon your list of patrons. Do you intend to 
terminate a friendship of ten years in this way, or do 3 r ou purpose 
resuming the ' Dear Nonplus,' with a view to lie mine ' faithfully,' 
when the account is settled (as it will lie to-morrow), remaining in 
the meanwhile mine ' obediently,' only V Will you allow me to 
suggesl thai expressions of friendship are open to question, both 
as to their value end their sincerity, when they are made to de- 
pend on business relations for their respective amounts of warmth 
or coldness which shall be infused into them. To be consistent, I 
shall have to adopt a cringing tone when I owe you money, and a 
tunc of pompous patronage the moment I have paid it ; that is, if 
any correspondence should continue between yourself and yours 
very truly, STEPHEN NONPLUS." 

Complimentary Addresses. 

Among the forms of address for friendly, compli- 
mentary ami semi-business letters, we have the formal 
" Dear Sir " for use on all occasions. The solicitor so 
addresses his client, the client his solicitor, the patient 



118 LETTER- WRITING. 

his physician, the editor his contributor, and, indeed, 
any man of gentlemanly pretentions, addressing another 
to whom he has already been introduced, or with 
whom he has already corresponded. In correspondence 
of a professional nature, where both parties are stran- 
gers, it would always be well to commence with the 
simple " Sir," or " Madam," and in the second or third 
letter adopt the more agreeable " Dear Sir," or "Dear 
Madam." A little enhancement of the gentlemanly or 
ladylike feeling is to be found in " My dear Sir," or 
" My dear Madam," which may by degrees, as the 
parties know and respect each other more sincerely, take 
the very friendly and now fashionable form of " My 
dear Mr. Swallowwing," " My dear Mrs. Pettitoe," or 
"My dear Miss Nightingale." The latter form is that 
most in use at the present day in polite society, between 
persons who have met at least once, and who are on 
terms of acquaintance, in which business has no part 
whatever. 

When folks begin to say " My dear Higginbottom," 
" My dear old boy," and " My dear fellow," all strict 
rules of etiquette are at an end, and good sense gives a 
proper form to the free expression of mutual friendship. 

But friendship, like all other moral and material 
adornments of life, is subject to blight occasionally, and 
the strongest union may be dissolved by a fiercer heat 
arising from the combustion of the very dregs and lees 
of amity. Your friend annoys you, disappoints you, 
breaks his word, or lets off a bit of scandal that reaches 
your ears. Then you will " write him such a letter," 
you'll tell him plainly what you think of him, and put 
him to shame by the evidence of black and white. 



SHARP COMMUNICATIONS. 179 

Now, if you are wise you will do nothing of the sort ; 
you will never write a single word that may cause 
shame or pain in the reader's mind, or that the writer 
may have cause hereafter to regret. A letter is a docu- 
ment that may be preserved forever ; and should you 
be mistaken, or only partially informed, or the victim 
of your own too hasty or incompetent judgment, your 
own hand and seal may remain as a witness of your 
rashness, perhaps of your meanness, to the end of your 
days, ay, and long after that, to the end of the world 
even. 

Sharp Communications. 

Therefore, if you want to tell your friend your mind, 
do not write, but speak it ; a spoken bitterness may be 
forgotton and forgiven, but a written one cannot be so 
readily forgiven, and it can never be forgotten ; no, not 
even if burnt ; for when we are stung in the perusal of 
something, the effect goes deep, and becomes lasting, 
and can scarcely ever be thoroughly erased, even by all- 
corroding time. A fierce letter, a sharply written re- 
proof, or a disparaging communication to a friend has 
been the cause of embittering many a couple of lives ; 
and it may be safely said that that should never be 
written which we may, within possibility, wish hereafter 
to recall. We are all fallible, and may, therefore, be 
very much in error when we feel very sure that we are 
in the right ; and that consideration should be sufficient 
to make any sensible man or woman pause before giving 
vent to anger, with the pen in hand. 

Bat exceptions to such a rule may occur ; an admo- 
nition, a reproof, nay, even an accusation, may some- 



180 LETTER- WRITING. 

times be necessary, and a letter be the only possible 
mode of conveying it. Let good sense and good feel- 
ing determine how the case shall be, and let it at the 
same time be borne in mind, that what is once written 
cannot be unwritten, and that greater caution is neces- 
sary in using the pen, than in using the tongue. 

Titles. 

The following list illustrates the various titles used 
for the different ranks, either in the complimentary ad- 
dress or superscription on the envelope. 

To Royalty. 

To the King's Most Excellent Majesty. 
To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty. 

To Nobility. 

To his Grace the Duke of Argyle. 

To the Most Noble the Marquis of Westminster. 

To the Right Honorable the Earl of Derby. 

Titles Used in the United States. 

His Excellency James A. Garfield, President of the 
United States. 

The title of " His Excellency" is also applied to the 
Governor of any State, or Minister to Foreign Countries. 

Honorable John A. Rivers, Vice-President of the 
United States. 

The title of Honorable is also applied to Senators and 
Representatives of the United States, Governors of a State, 
State Senators and Representatives , Judges, Mayors, and 
Heads of Executive Departments of the General Govern- 
ment. 



TITLES — HOW TO USE. 181 

The term Esquire is applied very indiscriminately to 
men throughout this country. It should only be applied 
to members of the legal profession, or to non-profes- 
sional gentlemen of note and distinction. 

Two titles of the same class shonld not be applied to 
the same name, Thus, in addressing John Roe, do not 
say Mr. John Roe, Esq.; though we may say Mr. John 
Roe, or John Roe, Esq, 

If the profession of the person addressed be known, 
the professional title should almays be used. If a per- 
son be entitled to two titles, the higher is given; if both 
are used, the lower first, followed by the higher. 

Titles of respect are usually placed before the name; 
as Mr., Hon., Rev., Dr., and military titles. 

Professional titles sometimes precede, and sometimes 
follow the name. Dr. Fred Childs, or Fred Childs, M. 
D.; Prof. Moses True Brown, or Moses True Brown, 

A. M. 

All titles should be written plainly and in full. 

Politeness requires that some title should be added 
to the name, unless the person is a member of the soci- 
ety of Friends. 

One title should not include another as Dr. Graham 

B. Bristol, M. D. It is allowable in writing to a clergy- 
man whose surname alone is known to us, to write, 
Rev. Mr. Smith, the Mr. being in this case regarded as a 
substitute for the Christian name; it would not be allow- 
able to write Mr. Dr. Brown, but Dr. Brown. 

Two literary, or professional titles may be added to 
one name; thus, Prof. Leroy Cooley, A. M.; Rev. Dr. 
Shaw; Rev. M. B. Anderson, D. D., LL. D. 

The wife of a professional man may be addressed, 



182 LETTER-WRITING. 

using the following title, as, Mrs. Dr. Brown, Mrs. Sec- 
retary Bowen. It is no doubt a better custom for the 
wife to be addressed in her own name, as Mrs. Julia 
Ward Howe. It is required in business transactions. 

Signature. 

If the writer is a lady, she should, in writing to a 
stranger, so sign her name as to indicate whether she is 
married or single. 

Suppose a letter to be written by Miss Morris, for 
example, is signed K. E. Morris, — how is one to know 
whether the letter was written by a man or a woman; 
or the person receiving the letter, — how should he 
address it ? He does not know whether to address it to 
Mr., Miss, or Mrs. K. E. Morris. The writer is thus 
placed in a dilemma; he must either address the letter 
without using any title, or risk making a mistake. 

If the writer is a single lady and unknown let her 
write the title Miss; or if a married lady, Mrs.; if a 
widow she should use her own name. 

Date. 

When the year is not expressed, the letter must be 
affixed; as, "Yours of the 18th instant." 

The ordinals 1st, 2d, 3rd, etc., are not abbreviations 
and are not followed by a period. 

Complimentary Closing. 

Social letters admit of many forms of closing: 

Your friend; Your sincere friend ; Yours with esteem; 

Faithfully yours; Yours heartily and affectionately; 

Most gratefully and faithfully yours; Yours very 



PLACE. 183 

sincerely; Your loving daughter; Your affectionate 
father; Ever your affectionate friend. 

The complimentary closing should be neither too 
familiar, nor too formal. It should have some reference 
to the salutation used, so that it may not seem incon- 
sistent. If the salutation used be "My dear friend" do 
not close with " Your friend," — better "Truly yours." 

Body of the Letter. 

The first line is generally about an inch and a half 
below the top of the page. 

A letter should never begin much higher than that, 
but if the letter is to consist of but a few lines, it should 
be commenced lower, so that the spaces below and 
above the letter may be equal. 

Social Letters. 

Social letters are often dated at the bottom. Letters 
written in the third person are generally dated at the 
bottom. In such instances the date is written near the 
left edge, one line below the signature. 

Envelopes. 

In business correspondence it is best to use plain enve- 
lopes. Ladies do well to use white. Buff, light straw 
color, blue, or manila answer for business purposes, — 
but white is sure to be suitable. 

Place. 

When a person is answering a letter, he generally 
looks at the heading to see how to direct his answer. 

The letter should be self-explaining, hence if written 
elsewhere than in a large city the "place" should 



184 LETTER-WRITINft. 

embrace at least two items, — the name of the post office, 
the county, and the name of the state. 

If written in a city, the number, street, city, and 
state should be given. If the city is very large, such as 
Chicago, St. Louis, the state need not be given. Thus 
it would seem unnecessary to write "580 Broadway, 
New York, N. Y. 



Arithmetic, 



INTRODUCTION. 



In order to teach arithmetic successfully the teacher 
should have an idea of the subject as a whole. The 
most difficult part of the subject — as in all subjects — is 
the fundamental part ; and unless that is thorougly 
taught, the after results will be unsatisfactory. It must 
be admitted that more time is given to the subject of 
mathematics in the schools than to any other study. 

It is an important study, but it should not receive an 
undue proportion of time, — it should not be pursued at 
the expense nor to the neglect of other studies of equal 
importance, as language, reading, spelling, etc. 

Nothing is gained by passing rapidly through the 
primary part. Pupils should be perfectly familiar with 
all the fundamental operations ; able to write numbers 
with five and six periods without hesitation ; add rapid- 
ly and accurately long columns of figures ; and perform 
all computations in the fundamental rules with despatch. 
The first part of arithmetic should be simple, and the 
lesson should be given orally by the teacher. More at- 
tention should be given to the study of processes than to 
analysis — computation comes first, then calculation. The 



186 ARITHMETIC. 

subject should be presented in its logical order, — every 
part held up separately and individually, and the fact 
fixed in the mind. 

When the truth is once understood, the pupil should 
be trained to work skilfully, thoughtfully and accurately. 

Much reasoning should not be required of the pupils 
during the primary course. The aim should be to make 
them see how to do. 

But little attention should be given to definitions ; if 
used they should be fully understood and explained, 
otherwise they may be committed to memory, and this 
is not necessary during this period. The pupils should 
be able to explain the processes, but they should not be 
required to commit the rules to memory, nor the prin- 
ciples. 

Definitions, rules and principles are deductions, — do 
do not burden the children with these. 

The Science of Arithmetic receives too much 

Attention. 

Definitions, rules and principles have to do with the 
science of arithmetic. 

Thomas Hill says in his book, " The True Order of 
Studies," that " the science of arithmetic receives so 
much attention that the art is neglected." The primary 
object of arithmetic should be not to develop the rea- 
soning power, bnt to make pupils skilful in computation. 

He further says, that " A child should not be expected 
or required to reason at an early age. Any direct train- 
ing of the logical powers before the age of twelve years 
is premature, and in most cases a positive injury to the 
pupil. The common sense view would give facts before 



FIRST IDEAS OF NUMBER. 187 

reasoning. Reasoning upon facts is the work of a 
maturer mind." Granting this to be true, arithmetic is 
taught backwards in many cases ; beginning with rea- 
son instead of observation. 

For the reason above quoted, rules and definitions 
should not be committed to memory until a later period. 

First Ideas of Number. 

The teacher should begin the lessons- in number with 
objects, using pencils, crayons, pebbles, books ; also a 
numeral frame. 

" Initiate children in arithmetic by means of the hall- 
frame alone, thereby making their elementary instruction 
a simple and natural extension of their own daily obser- 
vation," says Laurie, in his standard book " On Primary 
Instruction in relation to Education" (p. 112), and as he 
leaves the subject of arithmetic, he adds this note, as if 
in fear he had not been sufficiently emphatic: 

"The teaching of arithmetic should be begun earlier 
than is customary, and always with the hall-frame.'''' (p. 117). 

The object is to lend the children to the perception of 
the idea of numbers, as exemplified in surrounding 
objects. 

The idea to be gained at first is that of one, as it is the 
basis of all arithmetical calculations. 

The teacher should hold up one object before the class; 
as one pencil, one crayon, etc., until every child under- 
stands what is meant by one. 

Tell the pupil that one is the word that expresses 
" the how many," the number. 

After you have taught the word one, then teach the 
character that represents it. 



188 ARITHMETIC. 

" Develop the idea, then give the term ; educate the 
eye, then employ the hand ; cultivate the use of lan- 
guage, then exercise memory." 

Pupils should not count one, two, three, etc., naming 
the abstract terra ; they should say one pencil, one 
crayon, one book. 

Proceed in the same manner to teach two ; by hold- 
ing up two objects of different kinds. After they are 
made familiar with the number of objects, let marks be 
made on the blackboard ; then the characters that rep- 
resent the number of marks. Let children reproduce 
at their seats the work given at the board by the 
teacher. 

Value of Numbers. 

At this point see that the pupils get the idea of the 
value of number, by comparing a greater group of 
objects. 

Order of Numbers. 

Care should be taken to teach the order of numbers, 
so that the children can tell what number comes before 
and what after any given number. This may be illus- 
trated with the class, or the picture of a ladder. 

Teach the pupils in the same way to write numbers 
to 99. Give no instruction about units and tens, etc., 
until a later period. 

Teach the subject so thoroughly that your successor 
will not be obliged to instruct in it. 

Numeration and Notation. 

The Unit. 

the pupils have been taught thus far to deal with 



NUMERATION. ]89 

ones. They are now supposed to be familiar with num- 
bers to 1000. They may now be taught that there is 
another name — unit, which means a single thing — that 
may be used with the figures, as one unit, two units, etc. 

The Ten. 

At this stage the teacher may provide several small 
sticks, about the size of matches. Take several sticks 
and let the pupils count ten ; proceed in the same man- 
ner until ten bundles have been made ; now let them 
see that one bundle contains ten sticks, or ten units, or 
ten ; two bundles, twenty sticks, or twenty units, or 
twenty ; and so proceed until you reach the hundred. 

Write numbers on the board to correspond to the 
object and groups ; let them read the numbers, as one 
ten and one unit, one ten and two units ; twenty, two 
tens ; thirty, three tens, etc. 

Notation. 

When the pupils can readily read columsof units and 
tens, they may be required to write these numbers on 
the slate. The teacher may dictate the numbers. Let 
them write numbers below 100, and ask them what they 
used to write the number. For example, write 86. 
How did you write it? With 8 tens and 6 units, etc. 

Numeration. 

They have been already taught that ten units make 
one ten ; and ten tens make one hundred. Now let 
them read the numbers. For example 123 ; three units, 
two tens, one hundred, read 123 units. The teacher, 
after sufficient drill, should obtain bundles with 100 
sticks. 



190 ARITHMETIC. 

Supplement these illustrations with dictation exercises, 
and so proceed until the pupils are made familiar with and 
can write numbers readily from dication on the slates 
and at the board, and read their values. 

Orders of Units. 

The pupils must have a clear idea that units may dif- 
fer in size and value — that one of anything is a unit, 
whether large or small. One bushel is a unit ; one 
dollar is a unit ; one cent is a unit. They have already 
been taught that numbers are built up of simple "ones," 
so far as 100 ; that each ten is considered as a whole, 
or 1 ten ; that each hundred is regarded as a whole, or 
1 hundred. 

Now they are prepared to see what is meant by a 
unit of the first order, of the seeond order, of the third 
order, etc. 

This step is sometimes omitted in teaching number. 
It is a very important one ; it should be carefully 
taught and the pupils thoroughly drilled upon it. 

Let them see that it is the position of a figure that 
determines its value. 

Teachers are too ambitious in advancing pupils in 
arithmetic. 

Some teachers will promote to higher classes pupils 
that could not pass an examination in notation and 
numeration. Frequently we find pupils ciphering in 
percentage, that fail in writing and reading a number 
of four figures. Never let pupils pass beyond the fun- 
damental rules until they are familiar with them, and 
are able readily to apply them. 

They will make slow progress in the advanced steps 



ADDING BY FIGURES. 19l 

if this is not understood, — they will make rapid progress 
if it is thoroughly understood. 

Teach so thoroughly that your successor may not be 
obliged to unteach what has been taught. 

Too much pains cannot be taken with notation, 
numeration and addition. The law of increase and de- 
crease may be thoroughly developed with these rules. 

Again we repeat, " not how much but how well." 

Adding. 

Begin the subject in the same way as the first, with 
objects. Marks upon the blackboard may be used after 
the children have become familiar with adding objects. 
Use the numeral frame but see that the children do not 
confound counting with adding. 

Concrete Numbers. 
Let pupils add concrete numbers without having the 
objects before them. When they become very expert 
in computation, let them add numbers concretely from 
one to fifty. The teacher should not leave this division 
of the subject until the children can announce the sum 
of any two concrete numbers that may be giveu, 
instantly. Confine the problems to numbers less than 
ten. 

Adding by Figures. 

These exercises at first should be very simple ; first, 
by adding one to all the numbers less than ten ; then 
two ; then three, etc. 

After sufficient drill has been given, and the pupils 
can give instantly the sums of all the numbers less than 
ten, proceed in the same with all the decades to one hun- 



192 ARITHMETIC. 

dred. This grouping of numbers will prove a pleasing 
and profitable drill. Do not let the pupils add number^ 
in the following manner : For example, What is the sum 
of 8 apples, 1 apples and 4 apples? 7 apples and 8 apples 
are 15 apples; 15 apples and 4 apples are 19 apples. 
Rather have them say ; 8 apples, 15 apples, 19 apples. 
Simply announce the results and do not allow them to 
count. 

Addition Tables. 

The teacher should see that the tables are thoroughly 
committed to memory by requiring pupils to recite them 
backward and forward regularly and irregularly. Excite 
emulation among the members of the class in regard to 
the mechanical execution of the work, because careless 
habits formed will ever be a source of annoyance to both 
teacher and pupil. 

Construct the addition tables at first by the use of 
objects. 

Great care should be taken that the pupils be not hur- 
ried over these early steps too rapidly. Teach the com- 
binations of only one number at a lesson. " Make haste 
slowly." Teach them to add rapidly and correctly. 

German Method of Teaching Rapid Addition. 

2 3 

8 G 9 7 

2-4-4 3 + 4 

2 + 6 3 + 6 

4 5 1 

(1.) (2.) 



KAPID ADDITION. 193 

4 5 

2 8 

6 9 1 

4 + 2 5 + 7 

4+8 00+74 

8 3 7 


(3.) (I.) 



6 






8 


3 




2 + 3 

2 + 7 


1 







4 

7 








(5.) 





4 + 5 

9 

(0.) 

In circle No. 1 begin with 2, add 4, and write the 
results about the circle. When the result exceeds nine, 
write the right hand figure only. Beginning with 1, 
passing to the right, we have the following: 2, 6, 10, 14, 
18,22,26,80, 34, 38, 42, etc.; again beginning with 
2, passing to the left, we have the following: 2, 8, 14, 
20, 26, 32, 38, 44, 50, etc. 

In older to form the circular tables, take any number 
less thai] ten and add a number to it, and continue the 
successive additions until you repeat the first figure; 
write these numbers about the circle. 

Be in with the number 1, and add the number to 10; 
and so on with each number. 

This exercise will produce great ambition in the 
school, and all pupils like to take part in it. At first 
call on the pupils to recite in concert; subsequently by 
individual drill. Time them, and see how many seconds 



194 ARITHMETIC. 

they will require to add 100. Only six of the tables 
are given; many others may be made by the teacher. 
The Germans have attained grand results through these 
circular tables.. In connection with these exercises 
pupils should be required to add columns of figures; at 
first, short columns, with figures less than five; gradu- 
ally increase until they become ready and rapid in com- 
putation. 

An experience of fifteen years at institutes has revealed 
sad results in adding simple columns of figures. In 
many instances the teachers had not been taught to add 
properly in their youth, and I have frequently received 
twenty-five different answers to a problem like the fol- 
lowing: — 

Add 8089, 7898, 7897 and 9876. 

The pupils should be taught the combinations of num- 
bers; combining the 4 and the 5 will always produce a 
9 ; a 6 and a 5 a 1 ; 9 and 5 a 4 ; 8 and 5 a 3 ; 7 and 5 a 
2, etc., and by a daily systematical drill the pupils will 
overcome the hesitancy which is a common fault in 
American schools. No rule in Arithmetic is used so 
much as addition, and great care should be taken with pri- 
mary classes. 

We are thus particular and emphatic, concerning the 
early steps of mathematical education, because it is "the 
first step which costs." Much more labor is required to 
unlearn than to learn. The teachers for the younger 
classes should possess particular aptness for imparting 
instruction. Such teachers deserve and are beginining 
to receive the highest wages. 



logical or analytical part. 195 

Analysis of Problems in Addition. 
Written Arithmetic. 

After the pupils have mastered the fundamental rules, 
and their reasoning powers begin to develop, the teacher 
should require an analysis of the problem. 

The mechanical operation — the doing part, should not 
be confounded with the logical operation — the think- 
ing part. 

Problem in abstract numbers : 

What is the sum of 8764, 9789, 5786 and 9843 V 

Mechanical Part. 

8764 
9789 
5786 
9843 



34,182 
Logical or Analytical Part. 

Analysis : — I have written the numbers so that units 
of the same order stand under each other. For conve- 
nience I will begin at the right hand; adding the first 
order, the sum is 22 units. As ten units make one ten, 
22 units are equal to 2 tens and 2 units; I will write the 
2 units in the order of units, and add the the two tens to 
the order of tens. 

Proceed in this manner with each order, giving the 
reasons for every step. 

Require the pupils to deduce the rule from the analy- 
sis. 



196 ABITHMETIC. 

Analysis of Concrete Problem. 

Problem : — If a horse cost $120, and a wagon $110, and 
a harness $90, what will be the entire expense ? 

Analysis: — The entire expense will be the sum of 
1120, $110, and $90; or $320. 

The simplest and most concise analysis should be 
taught to the children. No unnecessary words should 
be allowed in the analysis of a problem. 

Subtraction. 

This subject should be taught like addition, begin- 
ning with objects, first by taking away one object, then 
two, etc. After the pupils have become familiar with 
this process, then use marks on the board, subsequently 
using concrete numbers without having objects before 
them. At first ask the pupils to answer in concert, fol- 
lowed by individual drill. 

Subtracting by Figures. 

After the children have become familiar with the pre- 
ceding processes, the teacher may write numbers on the 
board as far as 9, and require the children to subtract 
one, then two, then three, etc. Vary the processes. 

Subtracting by figures when the figure in the subtra- 
hend is greater in value than the corresponding figure 
in the minuend. 

Problem : — Subtract 45G from 824. 

Mechanical Operation. 

824 7 11 14 

456 or 4 5 6 

368 3 6 8 



Logical or analytical operation* iffi 

Logical, or Analytical Operation. 

I have written the numbers as in addition, writing the 
subtrahend under the minuend. 

Begin at the right hand to subtract. Six units from 4 
units I cannot take; take 1 ten from the 2 tens and it 
equals 10 units; 10 units and 4 units are 14 units; 6 
units from 14 units equal 8 uuits; write underneath in 
the units order. 

Five tens from 1 ten I cannot take; take one hun- 
dred from 8 hundred and it equals 10 tens; 10 tens and 
1 ten equal 11 tens; 5 tens from 11 tens equal 6 tens; 
write it underneath in the tens order. Four hundred 
from V hundred leave 3 hundred, etc. 

By this process it will be observed that the form of 
the minuend was changed without altering its value. 
The subtrahend in form remained unchanged. The 
teacher should see that the pupils understand that 8 
hundred, 2 tens and 4 units are of the same value as 7 
hundred, 11 tens and 4 units. 

This is a simple analysis and easily understood. 

Second Analysis: — I cannot take 6 units from 4 units; 
so will add 10 units to 4, equal 14 units; 6 units from 
14 units equal 8 units; as I have added 10 units to the 
minuend, in order to preserve the equality, I must add 
10 units or 1 ten to the subtrahend; adding 1 ten to 5 
tens equal 6 tens; 6 tens from 2 tens 1 cannot take; I 
will add 10 tens to 2 tens, equal to 12 tens; 6 tens from 
12 tens equal 6 tens; as I have added 10 tens or 1 hun- 
dred to the minuend 1 must add 1 hundred to the hun- 
dreds in the subtrahend; 4 hundred and 1 hundred 
are 5 hundred, and 5 hundred from 8 hundred leave 3 



198 Arithmetic. 

hundred. This is governed by the principle that to add 
equal numbers to both minuend and subtrahend does 
not alter the value of the remainder. 

This analysis should be required in addition to the 
first, but not preferred to it. 

When there are Ciphers in the Mtnuend. 
Problem ; —Subtract 456 from 1000. 

Mechanical Operation. 

9 9 10 

10 

4 5 



5 4 4 



Analysis : — There are no units in the units order, no 
tens in the tens order, no hundreds in the hundreds or- 
der. In 1000 there are 9 hundred, 9 tens and 10 units. 
Six units from 10 units equal 4 units; 5 tens from 9 tens 
equal 4 tens; 4 hundred from 9 hundred equal 5 hun- 
dred. (The form of the minuend has been changed, but 
not its value.) Deduce the rule. 

As in the preceding rules, begin this subject with ob- 
jects and build up all the tables first with objects. 

Analysis of a Concrete Problem. 

Problem: — What will 40 books cost at $9 apiece? 

Analysis : — Since one book cost $9, 40 books will cost 
40 times $9, equal to $360. 

The teacher should insist that the pupils use the true 
multiplier in all concrete problems. Too much attention 
has evidently been paid to the higher parts of arithme- 
tic, to the neglect of the very elements. The teacher 



DIVISION. 199 

should see that the pupils analyze, or are able to analyze, 
every problem at this stage. 

Arithmetic, if taught logically, is well calculated to 
develop the mental faculties; if taught mechanically, as 
is often the case, a pupil may even pass through a book 
with but little thought. Drill upon the multiplication 
table. Require pupils to say it forward, backward and 
irregularly. 

Division. 

Begin with objects; ask questions as follows: What 
have I on my table ? One apple. How many times can 
I take one apple from it ? Once. What have I placed 
on my table ? Tioo pencils. How many times can I take 
one pencil from my table ? Two times. Each may place 
one watch on his desk. How many times can you take 
one watch from your desk ? Once. Place three drums 
on your desk. How many times can you take three 
drums from your desk ? Once. How many times can 
you take one drum from the desk ? Three times, Sfc. 

Place eight books on the desk. How many times can 
you take four books from the desk ? 

How many times can you take two books ? Once, 
twice, three times, four times. How many times can you 
take one book ? Once, twice, §*c. Place sixteen birds on 
the desk. How many times can I take four birds from 
them? 

Place ten flags on the desk, and divide them into two 
equal parts ; how many flags in each part ? Place nine 
books on the desk, and divide them into three equal 
parts ; how many in each part ? Take away one part, 
how many parts will remain ? Take away one part, how 



200 ARITHMETIC. 

many books will remain ? Place sixteen birds on the 
desk, and divide them into four equal parts ; how many 
birds are there in each part ? 

By the use of oral abstract questions, thus : How 
many two's in 8 ? In 2 ? In 14 ? In 10 ? How many 
times can four be taken from 8 ? From 24 ? From 32 ? 
Twelve is how many times 2 ? How many times 4 ? 
How many times 6 ? How many times are four con- 
tained in 8 ? In 12? In 20, &c. Sixteen contains 2 
how mauy times ? Contains 4 ? Contaius 8? &c. What 
is one-third of 9 ? Of 15 ? Of 21 ? Of 18 ? <fcc. 

Primary Arithmetic. 

With the long established methods in arithmetic it 
seems impossible to advance anything that is new. 

Some teach first the subject of addition, then sub- 
traction, etc. Others begin with 1, and teach all there 
is to know about it before passing over to another num- 
ber. Teaching for instance the number 1, they make 
the children perform all the operations possible within 
the limits of this number. The child has to see and 
keep in mind that — 

1 -1-1=2, 1X1=1 1-1=0, 1-1-1=1, etc. 
2+1=3, 3X1=3 2-1=1, 2-i-l=2, etc. 

The whole circle of operation up to 2 was exhausted 
before the child progressed to the number 3, which was 
to be treated in the same way. 

Why adhere to the more scientific categories of addi- 
tion, etc., in the primary grade, where they do not help 
to make the subject auy clearer to the child ? 

The first four processes are naturally connected, and 
will appear so in the child's mind. 



WHAT PUPILS MUST ACQUIRE. 201 

If you take away 1 from 2, and 1 remains, the child 
in knowing this also understands implicitly the opposite 
process of adding 1 to 1 and its result- 
Multiplication and division are, in the same way, 
nothing but another way of adding and subtracting, so 
that we might say one operation contains, and may be 
shown to contain, all the others. 

" You must teach the child to know the numbers in 
some way or other," but " to know a number really 
means to know also its most simple relations to the num- 
ber contained therein." Any child who knows a num- 
ber and its relations, must be also able to perform the 
operations of addition and subtraction, etc., with it, as 
they are the direct result of comparing two numbers 
with each other. 

Only when the child can perform all these operations, 
for instance, within the limits of 2, can it be supposed 
really to have a perfect knowledge of this number. 
This seems to be a rational method and worthy of a 
trial ; it has proved superior in practice to the methods 
in use. 

A full exposition of this method, commonly known as 
the Grube method, may be found in Beebe's First Steps 
Among Figures, price $1.00. 

Pupils must acquire Clear Conceptions of Processes. 

Acquaintance w T ith the process is the first step towards 
practical skill in any operation ; and the more intelligent 
it is, the sooner is skill acquired. 

A knowledge of the process must precede any at- 
tempt to give a theory or to supply a rule. Theory, in 



202 ARITHMETIC. 

fact, implies that the conceptions it embraces are al- 
ready in the mind, and the rule is universal that it 
springs from or is based on practice. 

The process must be made clear by examples from ex- 
perience, aided in every possible way by sensible repre- 
sentations, either objects, marks, or diagrams. When 
these have set forth the process, it should be made fa- 
miliar by well-constructed examples to be worked men- 
tally. 

Facility of Computation. 

This, when a process is clear and intelligent, is a 
matter only of a memory, and depends on practice. The 
two things to be secured are accuracy and rapidity. These 
important habits may be established by a thorough know- 
ledge of all the tables, and much practice in computa- 
tion. 

Written Analysis. 

The teacher should require the pupils to bring in to 
the daily recitation a written analysis of one or two 
problems. The mechanical process also should be re- 
quired, and the work should be neatly and correctly ex- 
pressed. This work should be examined by the teacher, 
else the pupils will lose interest in its performance and 
become careless in the mechanical execution. 

Examine and cross-examine the pupils in their 
work, and see if they can give a reason for every 

STEP. 

Suggestions to Teachers. 

1. We cannot impress too strongly upon the teacher's 
mind that each lesson in arithmetic must be at the same 



61 <;<;INT10NS TO TKACHEKS. 203 

time a lesson in language. As the pupil in the primary 
made should be generally held to answer in complete 
sentences with clear and distinct articulation, so especial- 
ly in arithmetic, the teacher should insist on fluency, 
smoothness and neatness of expression, and lay special 
stress upon the process of the solution of each example. 
As long as the language for the number is not perfect, 
the idea of the number is also defective. An example 
is done, not when the result has been found, but when 
it has been solved in a proper way. Language is the 
only test by which the teacher can ascertain whether or 
not the pupils have perfectly mastered any step. 

2. Teachers should avoid asking too many ques- 
tions. Such questions, moreover, as by containing 
half the answer, prompt the scholar, should be 
omitted. The pupil should do the talking as much as 
jwssible. 

3. Every process ought to be illustrated by means 
of an application to objects. Fingers, lines, or any 
other objects, will answer the purpose, but objects 
of some kind should always be presented to the class. 

By this method of teaching the pupil will not be 
ahJe to pass over much ground, but what he does 
know, he will know thoroughly. 

No new numbers should be commenced before the 
previous one is perfectly mastered. It woxdd be a 
m i stake to suppose that in teaching according to this 
plan, memory is not required on the part of the child. 
Memory is an important factor here, as it is in all 
instruction. I say this boldly, though I knoio toith 



204 ARITHMETIC. 

some teachers it has become almost a crime to say 
that memory holds its place in education. To have 
a good memory is, in their eyes, a sign of stupidity. 
Reviews must frequently and regularly take place, 
and, lastly, propositions must be thoroughly memo- 
rized. 

Fallacies in the Analysis of Problems in the 
Fundamental Rules. 

Problem: — James had live cents and he found seven 
more; how many had he ? 

Addition. 

First Step. — James had five cents and he found seven 
more; how many had he then ? 

Second Step. — He had as many as the sum of five cents 
and seven cents. 

Third Step. — Five cents plus seven cents are twelve 
cents. 

Fourth Step. — Therefore, if James had five cents, and 
he found seven more, he then had twelve cents. 

Remarks. — In the above analysis, — as it is given in 
many schools — the pupils have used fifty-one words. 
No business man in solving this problem, would use 
this rigmarole of words. If the teacher repeats the 
problem it is not necessary for the pupil to repeat it. 
There is no objection — that is, no plausible one — to the 
pupil's reading the problem from the book. 

The great object sought for in the study of arithmetic, 
is to develop and strengthen the reasoning powers. 

It is a positive injury to require pupils to commit to 



m KfcRACTlbft-. 205 

memory simple arithmetical problems that are of no 
value whatever after the answer is attained. 

We encourage teachers to use a simple concise 
analysis, instead of requiring pupils to commit to mem- 
ory the formulas found in too many text-books. The 
following analysis is to be perferred, and it is used by 
experienced teachers: — 

Analysis. 

Since James had five cents, and found seven cents, he 
had the sum of five cents and seven cents, equal to 
twelve cents. 

In this analysis we have used twenty three words ; 
in the first fifty-one words. " Therefore," etc., at the 
close of a problem is an unnecessary repetition of 
words. 

Subtraction. 

Analysis. 

First Step — A boy having seven marbles, lost five of 
them ; how many had he left? 

Second Step — He had as many left as the difference 
between seven marbles and five marbles. 

Third Step — Seven marbles minus five marbles are 
two marbles. 

Fourth Step. — Therefore, if a boy having seven mar- 
bles lost five of them, he had two left. 

Simplified Analysts. 

Since a boy having two marbles lost five of them, he 
had left the difference between seven marbles and five 
marbles, equal to two marbles. 



206 ARITHMETIC. 

In the first analysis we have used fifty-two words ; in 
the second twenty-five words. 

Multiplication. 

Analysis. 

First Step — At seven dollars a pair, what will five 
pairs of boots cost ? 

Second Step — If one pair cost seven dollars, five pairs 
will cost five times seven dollars ; (or more frequently, 
seven pairs which are seven times one pair.) 

Third Step — Five times seven dollars are thirty-five 
dollars. 

Fourth Step— Therefore, at seven dollars a pair, five 
pairs will cost thirty-five dollars. 

Simplified Analysis. 

Since one pair cost seven dollars, five pairs will cost 
five times seven dollars, equal to thirty-five dollars. 

In the first analysis we have used thirty-four words ; 
in the second seventeen words. 

Division. 

Analysis. 

First Step — If a man laid out one hundred dollars for 
cows, and paid twenty dollars for each one he bought, 
how many cows did he buy ? 

Second Step — If one cow cost twenty dollars, he bought 
as many cows for one hundred dollars as twenty is con- 
tained times in one hundred. 

Third Step — Twenty is contained times in one hundred, 
five times. 



SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS. 207 

Fourth Step — Therefore, if a man laid out one hundred 
dollars for cows, and paid twenty dollars for each one 
that he bought, he bought five cows. 

Simplified Analysis. 

He bought as many cows as twenty dollars is contained 
times in one hundred dollars, or five times. He bought 
live cows. 

Some meet with difficulty in analyzing problems in 
division, when they consist of concrete numbers. Di- 
vision is finding how many times one number can be 
subtracted from another of the same kind. 

Dollars can be divided by dollars and by nothing else. 
Yards can be divided by yards, and nothing else, and so 
on for any other things that might be mentioned. That 
dollars can only be divided by dollars arises from the 
fact that division is but a short process of finding how 
many times one number or quantity can be subtracted, 
from another, and we can subtract only dollars from 
dollars ; therefore we can divide dollars only by dol- 
lars. 

Example — Divide $42 equally among 6 men. Now 
wo cannot divide $42 by 6 men nor by 6 ; but if we 
give each man a dollar, that will require $6, and $6 can 
be subtracted from $42 seven times. Hence we can 
give each, man a dollar seven times, or we can give him 
$7 at one time 

After the operation is performed, we may call the 7, 
seven dollars ; then the G will be a mere number, and 
thus, indirectly, we may divide $42 by 6. 

Practically, however, all such operations are peformed 



208 



ARITHMETIC. 



abstractly, as 42, 6, 7, taken as mere numbers, and then 
mere logic decides upon the names. 

Order of Solving Problems. 

1. Require the pupils to state the conditions and the 
demands of the problem. 

2. To give the logical operation or analytical steps. 

3. To explain the mechanical operation. 

4. To give the analysis. 

5. To state the conclusion. 

6. To deduce the rule. 

7. To form definitions. 

8. To prepare a tabulated review. 

The study and solution of examples and their dis- 
cussion in the class involve the following points : 

1. Correct reading. 

2. Examination preparatory to solution. 

3. Analysis and solution. 

4. Retracing steps. 

5. Readiness in solving and explaining problems. 

Proper Results of Arithmetical Study. 

fl. Correct perception. 

,, ,,!••,• ! 2. Repetition. 

1. Mental discipline { g p r{ f ctice 



. 2. Practical business 
preparation. 



3. Preparation for 
advanced study. 



^4. Attention. 



1. Accuracy. 

2. Expertness. 
|^3. Rapidity. 



mental arithmetic. 209 

Cautions to he Observed in Teaching Arithmetic. 

1. Present single ideas, single facts and single dif- 
ficulties. 

2. Call up each point in the lesson frequently. 

3. Teach simple processes. 

4. Keep the mind in an active state. 

5. See that pupils get a clear perception of princi- 
ples. 

0. Fix and hold the attention. 

Mental Arithmetic. 

There should be no difference between the analysis 
of a problem in mental and in written arithmetic. The 
only difference between the two books is that the men- 
tal arithmetic contains problems in winch the computa- 
tion may be performed mentally, without recourse to 
written symbols. It is a fact that those pupils who have 
been trained carefully in mental arithmetic, take up the 
principles of higher mathematics more readily. The 
language used should be sufficient to render the solution 
of the example clearly intelligible to a listener, yet so 
brief as not to retard, unnecessarily, the processof men- 
tal calculation. The mental arithmetic should both 
precede and accompany the written arithmetic, step by 
step. In fact it would be much the better way to select 
a text-book that contained exercises in botli the mental 
and the written arithmetic. In mental arithmetic the 
language should be clear, and the words enunciated 
distinctly. No hesitancy should he permitted — pupils 
should pass through the solution rapidly. Pupils should 
be required to construct original problems, and random 



210 Arithmetic. 

exercises should be given by the teacher in addition, 
subtraction, multiplication and division, to teach rapid- 
ity and accuracy in computation. 

The teacher should give problems of a practical 
nature to the class. 

Written Arithmetic. 

There is a great deal of perfectly barren mathemati- 
cal knowledge in this country, particularly among those 
who have studied, not for knowledge, but for a certifi- 
cate or a diploma. 

Not unfrequently do we meet with teachers who can 
demonstrate problems in Algebra and Geometry, who 
at the same time cannot make the least application of 
them. Again, we have met teachers who have gradu- 
ated at the higher institutions of learning, who have 
passed over the rules of arithmetic — finished the study 
— who would be unable to determine how many feet 
there are in a board 12 ft. in length, and 12 inches wide. 

They seem to be unaware that the rules of arithmetic 
were ever intended for any practical use. 

Such Knowledge of Doubtful Utility. 

Knowledge, so confined and abstract, is of doubtful 
utility, even as a mental discipline. Theory and practice 
should be united, or w T e perceive nothing of the beauties 
of mathematics. " Detached propositions and abstract 
mathematical principles give us no better idea of true 
and living science than detached words and abstract 
grammar would give us of poetry and rhetoric." Small 
acquirements in mathematics serve only to make us 
timid, cautious and distrustful of our own powers — but 



OBJECTS SOUGHT. 211 

a step or two further gives us life, confidence and 
power. 

Should we Study Mathematics for the Discipline 
of the Mind? 

The mere study of the mathematics will give but little 
discipline. The object, and the only object, should be 
to understand the subject studied, and if that under- 
standing is attained, the highest mental discipline that 
the subject can yield will surely be secured. 

Those who study for an object so indirect and indefi- 
nite can never be decidedly successful. And those who 
teach with no other view than giving discipline to the 
minds of their pupils, never more than half teach. 

Let a person undertake the study of any science with 
no other object than the discipline of the mind, and the 
science will come to him with the utmost difficulty. 
But let him commence the study with the determina 
tion to understand it, and the science will come to him 
with ease, and with it will come a discipline of mind, 
the most effective that man can attain. 

Oijjects Sought. 

The objects sought in arithmetical study should be 
two-fold, — to give practical skill, including clear insight 
into processes, facility in computation, and readiness in 
dealing with practical problems ; and to make it an ex- 
ercise in exact thinking. The former is considered the 
primary object, because demanded by the requirements 
of the pupil, who is at school to be fitted for business ; 
but the latter as securing a higher discipline of the 
mind, and as giving a clearer insight into the nature of 



212 ARITHMETIC. 

the work, is of almost equal value. In pursuit of the 
former object, the teacher will succeed the best who 
tries to make the whole cQiirse of instruction and prac- 
tice disciplinary. 

Logical and Mechanical Steps, 

In the application of arithmetic there are two distinct 
operations, the logical and the mechanical. 

In too many schools greater attention is given to the 
mechanical. To some extent this is quite necessary, 
and pupils should be made very familiar with elemen- 
tary processes ; but after they become expert in compu- 
tation, greater attention should be given to calculation, 
— the thinking. The undisciplined direct their atten- 
tion more to the doing than the thinking, when it should 
be the reverse ; and nearly all the efforts of the good 
teacher are directed to making his pupils reason cor- 
rectly. If a person fails in an arithmetical problem, 
the failure is always in the logic, for false logic directs 
to false reasoning, and true loejic points out true opera- 
tions. 

The study of mathematics is a beautiful one, and if 
taught properly it accustoms the mind to habits of in- 
vestigation ; if the knowledge is digested and assimi- 
lated, it tends to produce an exact mind. 

Pupils should be able to explain the processes, but 
they should not be required to commit to memory the 
rules or principles. 

Questions as to Intellectual Arithmetic. 

Is it absolutely established by fact and theory that 
no harm results from requiring pupils to repeat verba- 



FRACTIONS. 213 

tira the examples in intellectual arithmetic, — said 
examples having been first enunciated by the teacher, 
the pupils having no books? 

It is suggosted from the following considerations, 
whether harm does not result : 

First — Does not the requirement cultivate spasmodic 
or momentary effort to retain the words, and thus lead 
practically to the habit of forgetting them, thus devel- 
oping a most pernicious habit of forgetting other facts 
that are important to remember ? 

Second — Does not the requirement so tax the recollect- 
ing powers of the pupil that his reasoning powers must 
necessnrily be less active, and hence less developed ? 

Third — Is not the great object sought for in the study 
of mathematics, to develop and strengthen the reason- 
ing powers ? 

Fourth — Is not that one best disciplined mentally who 
is able to attend to and follow his own mental powers 
or operations in his process of reasoning ? 

Fifth — Does the requirement to memorize tend to 
strengthen or develop the habit of analytical reasoning ? 

Sixth — Is it not a positive injury to require pupils to 
commit to memory simple arithmetical problems that 
are of no value after the answer is obtained? 

Seventh — Cannot a verbal memory be far better culti- 
vated by requiring pupils to commit facts, words it may 
be, that are absolutely necessary to a correct scholar- 
ship? 

Fractions. 

The term unity in mathematical science is applied to 
any number or quantity regarded as a whole; the term 



214 ARITHMETIC. 

unit in arithmetic, to any number that is used as the 
base of a collection. 

Every number, whether integral or fractional, has the 
unit 1 for a primary base. 

A quantity regarded as a whole, called a unit, is the 
primary base of every fraction. 

One of the equal parts of a unit called the frac- 
tional unity is the secondary base of every fractional 
number. 

The value of a fraction is the number of times it con- 
tains the unit 1. 

The quantity or unit that is divided into equal parts, 
is the unit of the fraction. 

One of the equal parts is called & fractional unit. 

In f of a pound, 1 pound is the unit of the fraction, 
and £ of a pound the fractional unit. 

A fractional unit or a collection of fractional units 
is a fraction. (Or a fraction may be considered one or 
more of the equal parts of a unit, these parts corres- 
ponding to fractional units.) 

Two integers are required to express a fraction, one 
above a short horizontal line to denote the number of 
fractional units, called the numerator; it number?, or 
expresses how many are taken. The other, below the 
line, expresses how many fractional units it is divided 
into, and is called the denominator; it denominates or 
names and expresses how many fractional units are 
equal to a unit. 

The numerator and denominator taken together are 
called terms of the fraction. 

Fractions are of three kinds, common, decimal, and 
duodecimal. One or more of the equal parts of a quan- 



GENERAL pi:i\< LPLES 215 

tit y, expressed by two numbers, one written above the 
other with a line between them, is a common fraction — 
I, A and |. 

Its denominator is other than ten, or some power of 
ten. 

A fractional number, whose value is less than a unit, 
is a proper fraction, as f , f . 

Remarks. — A proper fraction is so termed because 
it expresses a value less than 1. An improper fraction 
is not properly a fraction of a unit, the value expressed 
being equal to or greater than 1. 

A single fraction, either proper or improper, is a 
simple fraction, t> I- 

A fraction of a fraction, or several fractions joined by 
of, is termed a compound fraction, as 2-3 of 6-8 of 3-12. 

A fraction in the numerator, or denominator, or both, 

.2 3 

is termed a complex fraction, as : j- -— 

Dividing unity by any number is termed a reciprocal', 
thus the reciprocal of 4 is \- 

An integral number added to a fractional number is 
termed a mixed riumher, as 0+7. 7 -f-y - 

Remark. — The sign of addition is usually omitted. 

General Pbincipies. 

1. Multiplying the numerator increases the value of 
the fraction. 

2. Multiplying the denominator decreases the value 
of the fracl ion. 

:;. Multiplying both numerator and denominator by 
the same number does oof alter the value of the 
fraction. 



216 ARITHMETIC. 

4. Dividing the numerator decreases the value of the 
fraction. 

5. Dividing the denominator increases the value of 
the fraction. 

6. Dividing both numerator and denominator by the 
same number does not alter the value of the fraction. 

Demonstrations or the Principles. 

1. Because it increases the number of fractional units 
while the value of the fractional unit remains the same. 

2. Because it diminishes the value of the fractional 
unit, while the number remains the same; it diminishes 
the value of the fractional unit because the unit of the 
fraction is divided into a greatet number of fractional 
units, and each fractional unit is as many times less in 
value as there are units in the multiplier. 

3. Because it increases the number of fractional units, 
as many times as it decreases the value of the fractional 
unit; that is in the same ratio. 

4. Because it diminishes the number of the fractional 
units, while the value of the fractional unit remains the 
same. 

5. Beeause it increases the value of the fractional unit, 
while the number remains the same; it increases the 
value of the fractional unit because the unit of the frac- 
tion is divided into a less number of fractional units, 
each fractional unit being as many times greater in 
value as there are units in the divisor. 

6. Because it diminishes the number of fractional 
units as many times as it increases the value of the 
fractional unit. 



ANALYSIS o| A I RACTION. 21 7 

Principles. 

1. If the numerator be multiplied by any number, the 
number of fractional units will be increased :is many 
times as there are units in the multiplier. 

2. If the numerator be divided by any number, the 
Dumber of fractional units will be diminished :is many 

limes as there arc units in the divisor. 

:{. If the denominator be multiplied by any number, 
the fractional units will be diminished as many limes as 
there are units in the multiplier. 

4. If the denominator be divided hy any number, the 

value of the fractional units will be increased as many 
times as there are units in the divisor. 

Analysis or a Fraci ion. 

Naming the quantity <>r unit divided, the value of one 
of its fractional units, the number of fractional units, 

the denominator, numerator and the terms of the frac- 
tion, is to analyze a fraction. 
Thus: Analyze the fraction !. 

Analysis, 

i is a fraction because it expresses 1 of the equal parts 
of a unit. 1 istheuntof 1 lie tract ion, OT 1 he unit lh.it 
is divided to form the fraction. | is the fractional unit, 
or one of the equal parts of the unit divided. 5 18 the 
denominator, it names tin- parts; it shows that the unit 
is divided into 8 equal parts; it tells the size <»r value of 
each part. t is the numerator; it numbers the puts 
taken t(» form the fraction; it is written above the line. 
4 and ."» are the terms of the fraction, and its value is 
4 + 5. 



218 ARITHMETIC. 

To Reduce Fractions to their Lowest Terms. 

Problem and Operation. 

Reduce M to its lowest terms. 

Operation. 

16--4_4 
20-r-4 5 

Analysis. 

Dividing 1$ by £=f ; as the numerator and denomina- 
tor are prime to each other, the fraction is reduced to 
its lowest terms. This depends upon the following 
principle: Dividing both terms of the fraction by the 
same number does not alter the value of the fraction, 
because the number of fractional units is decreased as 
many times as the value of the fractional unit is in- 
creased. (Deduce the rule.) 

To Reduce an Improper Fraction to an Integer or 
a Mixed Number. 

Problem and Operation. 

Reduce H 6 to an integral number. 
Operation : 1 i 5 -H=25, or 5) i F=- 2 T 5 =25. 

Analysis. 

In 1 there are 5 fifths ; in 125 fifths, as many ones as 
5 is contained times in 125, or 25. This depends upon the 
following principle : Dividing both terms of the frac- 
tion by the same number does not alter the value of 
tlie fraction ; the same reason as when we reduce frac- 
tions to their lowest terms. (Deduce the rule.) 



IMPROPEB FRACTIONS. 219 

To Reduce an Integer or Mixed Number to ak 
Improper Fraction. 

Problem and Operation. 

Reduce 40| to fifths. 
Operation : §+49=^ 



- 1 .-. 

-24' 

~s — rs— —5- 



145 I 2 — 24 



Analysis. 
In one there are 5 tilths ; in 49 ones, 49 times 5 fifths, 
or 245 fifths ; pins 2 fifths equals 247 fifths. This de- 
pends upon the following principle : Multiplying both 
terms of the fraction by the same number does not alter 
the value of the fraction, because the number of frac- 
tional units is increased as many times as the value of 
the fractional unit is decreased. (Deduce the rule.) 

To Reduce Fractions to a Common" Denominator. 

Problem and Operation. 
Reduce I, I, t, ¥. 

3X24 _ 72 
5X24~120 

3X20 _ 60 
6X20 - 120 
4X15 _ 60 
8X15"" 120 

15 x 30 _ 450 
4X30~120 

Analysis. 

The least common multiple of the denominators is 
120 ; dividing the least common multiple by the de- 
nominator of the first fraction, we have the quotent 24; 
multiplying both terms of the fraction by 24, we have 



220 ARITHMETIC. 

72-120ths. This depends upon the following principle: 
multiplying both terms of the fraction by the same 
number, does not alter the value of the fraction, because 
it increases the number of fractional units as many times 
as it decreases the value of the fractional unit. (The 
same analysis for the remaining fractions.) 

Addition of Fractions. 
Problem and Operation. 
Add I and f. 
Operation : 14-1=1= li. 

Analysis. 

As the fractions have the same fractional unit, we may 
add the numerators; f4-f=f=li. 
Add f and h 

Analysis. 

As the fractions f and f have different fractional units, 
first reduce them to fractions having the same fractional 
unit. I is equal to f|; I is equal to If; now as the frac- 
tions are of the same fractional unit value, we may add 
the numerators; tf4-|l=ff= 1 fl. (Deduce the rule.) 

Subtraction of Fractions. 
Problem and Operations. 
Subtract f from f . 
Operation: f=^r 

3 — 15 
¥— ^tf 
15 8 — 7 A no 

Analysis. 
The fractions f and I have different fractional units. 
First reduce the fraction to the same fractional unit 



MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS. 221 

value, t equal 1"; § is equal to &; as the fractious are 
of the same fractional unit value, we may subtract one 
numerator from the other, giving us uV. (Deduce the 
rule.) 

Multiplication of Fractions — To Multiply a Frac- 
tion by an Integer. 

Problem and Operation. 

Multiply A by 4. 

Operation: 2_X4 = ^ __i 
16 16 2 

2 _2_1 
16^ 4 4 2 

Analysis. 

Multiplying j S by 4, by multiplying the numerator is 
equal to A or \. This depends upon the following prin- 
ciple: Multiplying the numerator increases the value of 
the fraction, because it increases the number of frac- 
tional units, while the value of the fractional unit re- 
mains the same. 

Again, multiplying r« by 4, by dividing the denomi- 
nator, is equal to f or \. This depends upon the follow- 
ing principle: Dividing the denominator increases the 
value of the fraction, because it increases the value of 
the fractional unit, while the number remains the same; 
it increases the value of the fractional unit, because the 
unit of the fraction is divided into a less number of 
fractional units, and each fractional unit is as many 
times greater in value as there are units in the divisor, 
(Deduce the rule.) 



222 ARITHMETIC. 

To Multiply an Integer by a Fraction. 

Problem and Operation. 

Multiply 24 by f. 
Operation (a): ix24=- 2 g 4 - 

24x2=- 4 i£=16, Ans. 
Operation (b): A of 24=8. 

8X2=16, Ans. 
Operation (c): 24x2=48 

48-4-3=16, Ans. 

Analysis of Operation. 

(a) Once 24 is 24; \ times 24 is - 2 g 4 -; f times 24 is 2 times - 2 g 4 - or 
4 /=16, Ans. 

(b) i of 24 is 8, f , 2 times 8 or 16, Ans. 

(c) Multiplying 24 by 2 = 48; as the multiplier is three 
times too great in value, the product is three times too 
great in value. To give its required ?alue divide by 3, 
which gives us 16, i\ns. (Deduce a rule.) 

Note. — See that the pupil understands that I of 1 is 
the same as I of 2. 

To Multiply a Fraction by a Fraction. 

Problem and Operation. 



Multiply f by f. 

Operation (a): f-X-f or l=f . 

3vl — 3 
7 *-~S — 5tf 

_3 v 5 — 15 A n c 
56* —51? AnB ' 

Operation (b): fX 5 = V 5 Ans. 
-V 5 -X 8 =ifAns. 

Analysis of Operation. 

(a) f multiplied by f or 1 Xf ; f multiplied by h is 
equal to s\* Since f multiplied by £ is equal to -§%, f 
multiplied by f will be equal to 5 times -\ or Vh 



DIVISION OK REACTIONS. L'L'.'S 

(b) Multiplying * by S is the same as multiplying by 
the eigbtb part of 5. First multiply ? by 5 = I 5 ; as the 
multiplier is eight times too great in value the product 
will be eight times too great in value; hence to get its 
required value divide I 6 by 8, by multiplying the de- 
nominator, which gives J£. 

Division of Fractions — To Divide a Fraction by 

an Integer. 

Problem and Operation. 
Divide 5 by 3. 
Operation (a): — — 

Operation (b): \^ = \3r 

Analysis. 

Dividing f by 3=f; according to the principle which 
Bays: Dividing the numerator decreases the value of the 
fraction, because it diminishes the number of fractional 
units, while the value of the fractional unit remains the 
^anie. 

Again, dividing ? by 3, by multiplying the denom- 
inator is equal to A; multiplying the denominator 
decreases the value of the fraction, because it diminishes 
the value of the fractional unit, while the number of 
fractional units remains the same; it diminishes the value 
of the fractional unit, because the unit of the frac- 
tion is divided into a greater number of fractional units- 
and each fractional unit is as many times less in value 
as there are units in the multiplier. (Deduce the rule.) 



224 ARITHMETIC. 

To Divide an Integer by a Fraction. 

Problem and Operation. 
Divide 8 by f. 
Operation (a): 1X8=4°-. 

Operation (b): 8-s-3=2f. 
2|X5=13£. 

In 1 there are !; in 8, 8 times!—/; \°- divided by 
!=13£. 

(b) Divide 8 by f, or the fifth part of three; dividing 
8 by 3 gives ns 2f ; now as the divisor is five times too 
great in value, the quotient is only one-fifth of its re- 
quired value; to get its required value multiply the 
quotient by five, which gives us 13£. (Deduce the rule.) 

To Divide a Fraction by a Fraction. 

Problem and Operation. 

Divide f by f . 

r, .. i x 3X3=9 

Operation (a): - - 

9 !=H 

4X2=8 
Operation (b): 2x2~q 

3X3 = 9 
8 8 

Operation (c) -~- % 

2 = _8 
3 12 

• +5 =1| 

12 12 

Analysis of Operation. 
(a) 1 is contained in i, three-fourth times; £ is con- 



GENERAL REMARKS. 225 

tained in I, three times J, or| times; g will he contained 

in £, 4 of |, or i! times. 

(b) Dividing I by 2 gives us *; as the divisor is three 
times too great in value, the quotient is only J of its re- 
quired value; multiplying the quotient 2 by 3 gives us 
| = HAns. 

(e) Reduce J and | to a common denominator, f is 
equal to tV; f is equal to A; & divided by is is equal to 
I or \l 

General Remarks. 

It is not expected in a manual for teachers to explain 
every rule in arithmetic A few rules have been care- 
fully explained and illustrated in detail; and these are 
suggestive only. The plan of this work has been to 
give a course of reasoning leading to those conclusions 
From which rules are drawn, — and this is given in lan- 
guage free from technicalities, and easy to be under- 
stood. 

Tne explanations for Written Arithmetic are so given 
as to put the pupil into the place of the original reas- 
oner, until he arrives at a conclusion from which he can 
deduce the rule for himself. 

A ter the pupils are familiar with the process and 
have received sufficient drill, they should be taught to 
analyze problems. The teacher should see that the 
analysis is thoroughly understood and accurately recited. 
They should be required to write out an analysis, and 
the pupil that presents the most simple and concise 
analysis should write it on the board, subject to the crit- 
icism of the class. See that the language is used cor- 
rectly ; that it tells u the truth, the whole truth, and nothing 



226 ARITHMETIC. 

but the truth" Now, require every member of the class 
to commit the analysis verbatim, as he would a demon- 
stration in Euclid — for experience teaches that those 
pupils who are critically close in committing verbatim 
the demonstrations in Geometry make by far more 
accurate reasoners and ready mathematicians. 

There are teachers who allow a wide range in the 
forms of analysis as long as the language is good and 
the reasoning logical. While we would insist upon the 
development of individuality and originality on the part of 
the pupils, yet, as mathematics is an exact science, the 
language used in the analysis should he exact. 

I cannot see how language may be cultivated if the 
teachers allow a wide range in the use of words; I call 
that the best analysis which is the most simple and concise. 

Retracing the Steps in the Solution of a Prob- 
lem. . 

It is very common for the pupil to suppose that to 
explain an example simply means to state what oper- 
ations — what processes are performed in reaching the 
results. Hence, he will consider it an unreasonable 
question if asked why he added or subtracted, multi- 
plied or divided. 

Such an explanation should never be accepted. To 
exjuain a problem, means to assign a reason for each of 
the several steps. I have heard the following given as 
an analysis to a problem in division of fractions. Divide 
f by f . 

" Invert the terms of the divisor and proceed as in 
' multiplication." The rule tells how to solve the prob- 
lem; the analysis gives the reason for each step.. 



Prohi.kms. 22? 

Practical Problems. 

A large number of pupils who pass through the entire 
arithmetical course in our best schools fail to make 
application of their knowledge. This is owing to a lack 
of practical application of the rules. For example, let 
them measure the school room, find out the area, meas- 
ure the yard, fields, etc. ; in all the tables make a prac- 
tical application at the time. 

Too much time is wasted in solving problems in con- 
tinued addition, multiplication, division; I have known 
a class to linger a week upon casting out the 9's in 
addition. All such subjects as these and many others, 
like circulating decimals, true remainder, foreign 
exchange, alligation, algebraical and geometrical prob- 
lems, should be omitted in our public schools. By 
those who wish to pursue advanced studies, the subjects 
quoted may be studied; but, as a majority of the pupils 
leave school at the average age of twelve years, they 
should be drilled upon the subjects that they will be 
obliged to use through life. 

I would go so far that when a class had finished a 
portion of the arithmetic, — say to fractions, — every 
member should be able to solve any problem under the 
rules, giving a simple analysis, deducing the rule and 
reproducing the definitions. 

Problems. 

The pupil should bring to the class upon their slates 
or paper, problems already solved, with their analysis. 

The teacher should be sure to hear 1 he lesson assigned, 
otherwise the pupil may become careless in its prepara- 
tion; After the pupils have recited what they have 



228 ARITHMETIC 

prepared, they should be put to the test in many ways; 
the skilful teacher will not only examine the pupils, but 
cross-examine them. The teacher should call upon 
pupils for an original problem; should give them prac- 
tical problems; and not leave a subject until they are 
able to make application of it, under each subject dis- 
cussed. These should be examined by the teacher, 
carefully corrected and returned to the pupil. These 
exercises should be continued until good examples, illus- 
trating any point that may be represented, can be given 
in the class without previous preparation. 

They should be made familiar with the simplest forms 
of commercial paper; able to write a negotiable note; 
cast interest upon notes where partial payments have 
been made; find the profit and loss upon articles bought 
and sold. No subject is fully mastered by the pupil 
until he is able to illustrate in this manner. 

Whatever text-books are used, many outside problems 
should be given. Among the books of problems pub- 
lished the best are " The Regents' Questions from the 
first examination in I860 to June, 1882. Being the 
Questions in Arithmetic, Geography, Grammar, and 
Spelling for the preliminary examinations for admission 
to the University of the State of New York, prepared 
by the Regents of the University, and participated in 
simultaneously by more than 250 academies, forming a 
basis for the distribution of more than a million of dol- 
lars." Complete with Key. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 473. $2.00. 
" The Regents' Questions in Arithmetic only," in book 
form, 25 cts.; Key 25 cts. Boxes of these problems, 
each on a card-board slip, with Key, $1.00. 



p 



RAMMAR. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Oral lessons should precede the study of the text- 
book, as a preparation for it. The ideas involved in the 
definitions should be developed, before the pupils are 
required to commit these definitions to memory. The 
contrary practice, once so common, is very discouraging 
and injurious to the pupil, since it compels him to learn 
by rote a mass of verbiage which is perfectly unintelli- 
gible to him. 

Our text -books appeal chiefly to the memory, though 
grammar should be presented to a class as the study of 
language. Another reason why pupils so often dislike 
grammar is that they are hurried over the subject so 
rapidly that they become bewildered and utterly dis- 
couraged. 

Grammar deals largely with abstract subjects, and 
for this reason alone, time is an important element in 
the attainment of proficiency. A great deal of time is 
wasted upon this subject; if wisely presented, as it 
should be, it will prove one of the most delightful and 
interesting studies. 

One of the most common faults in teaching grammar 



230 GRAMMAR. 

is that of requiring pupils to commit to memory too 
many definitions, rules and observations. 

It is an abstract subject and at first it should be taught 
orally; all the terms should he carefully developed, explained 
and/«% illustrated by copious examples. When these 
terms are fully understood, then and not until then 
should the pupils be required to commit them to mem- 
ory. As fast as the terms are learned, the pupils should 
be required, in all cases, to embody them in sentences 
of their own construction. 

I. Develop the Sentence. 

II. Develop the parts of a( 1. Subject. 
Sentence. •< 

( 2. Predicate. 

{ 1. Declarative. 

Ill Develop the kinds of I ^ . 

Sentences (as to use.) > & 

3. Imperative. 

4. Exclamatory. 

{ 1, Simple. 
IV. Develop the forms of | 

Sentences (as to prop-^j 2. Complex, 
ositions.) 

\ 3. Compound. 

V. Teach the correct use of Capital Letters. 

VI. Teach the correct use of Punctuation Marks. 

Manner of Teaching the First Lessons in Grammar. 

The Sentence. 
Ask the pupils to think of some object. Ask them 
how you may know the name of the object. They per- 



"THE 01 OCK TICKS." 231 

ceive that before their thoughts can be known to others 
they must express them. In order to communicate your 
thoughts, what must you use ? They will discover that 
to express a thought, they must use words. Now ask 
each pupil to express the thought, "as the bird sings;" 
"the tree grows;" the boy laughs;" "the clock ticks;" 
etc. They are now told that a thought expressed in 
words is called a sentence. 

Require the pupils to form several sentences orally, 
using the following analysis. 

I first think about something; I use words to ex- 
pxess my thought. The words used are: " The bird 
sings'' These words express a thought, and form a 
sentence. A thought expressed in words is called a 
Sentence. 

The Subject. 

The pupils have already discovered that there must 
be an object or subject of thought in the mind. And 
when they tell their thoughts they speak of some object 
or subject and tell something about it. They are led to 
see this in every sentence. By repeated trials they soon 
find that they can form no sentence without speaking of 
something and telling something about it. 

Ask the pupils to express a sentence and analyze it. 
"The clock ticks." 9 

" The clock ticks,'' is a thought expressed in 
words; it is a sentence. The word " clock" repre- 
sents the object spoken of; it is the subject. The 
word u ticks" represents what is said of the clock; 
it is the predicate. 



232 GRAMMAR. 

That of which something is said, is called the sub- 
ject. 

That which is said of the subject is called the predi- 
cate. 

* The Object. 

By a similar process of development the pupils are 
led to observe the object of a sentence. 

The teacher should write at the board all the sen- 
tences given. 

funds of Sentences. 

It would be well for the teacher to ask questions of 
the pupils and endeavor to get in reply the different 
kinds of sentences, as asking, telling, etc. The teacher 
should write these sentences as given by the pupils on 
the board, and let the pupils discover the differences. 
Let them see that every telling or declarative sentence, 
ends with a, period. Every asking or interrogative sen- 
tence ends with the mark of interrogation, every ex- 
claiming sentence with an exclamation point, and every 
commanding or imperative sentence with a period. 

Review. 

Note. — To be committed to memory. 

1. A thought expressed in words is a Sentence. 

2. That of which somethi7ig is said, is called the 
Subject. 

3. That ivhich tells what is said of the subject, is 
called the Predicate. 

4. That ivhich receives the act expressed by the 
predicate, is called the Object. 



DECLARATIVE SENTENCE. 233 

Every sentence should begin with a Capital Letter. 

Every sentence should end ivith a Punctuation 
Mark. 

The Telling, or Declarative Sentence. 

Teacher. " Make a sentence about this cap." 
Pupil. " The cap is red." 

(The teacher writes on the board, while the pupils 
spell the words.) 

T. " What did you do when you made this sen- 
tence ? " 

P. " We told you something said about the cap." 
T. " Because this sentence tells or says something, 
what kind of a sentence may we call it ? " 
P. " We may call it a telling sentence." 
T. " What then is a telling sentence? " 
P. " A sentence that tells or declares something." 
T. " What mark must be placed after the last word 
of every telling sentence ? " 
P. "A period." 

T. " What have we learned in our lesson of to-day ? " 

P. " A sentence that tells something is called a 

Ttlli7ig, or Declarative Sentence. We must place a 

Period after the last word of every telling, or 

declarative sentence." 

Require the pupils to write on their slates the defini- 
tion of a sentence, subject, predicate, object, a telling 
sentence and the rule for punctuation. Let the pupils 
spell the words, and examine the slates carefully. 



234 GRAMMAR. 

The Asking, or Interrogative Sentence. 



*3 



T. " I will ask you a question, and will write it on the 
board. < Do you love study ? ' What did I do ? " 

P. " You asked a question." 

T. " Because it asks a question, what kind of a sen- 
tence is it ? " 

P. " An asking sentence." 

T. " What is an asking sentence ? " 

P. " A sentence that asks a question is an asking sen- 
tence." 

Let the pupils repeat, spell words and write the defi- 
nition on their slates; ask them to examine the reading 
books, and bring in asking sentences. 

Drill upon the above until every member knows how 
to use the period and interrogation mark. 

The Commanding, or Imperative Sentence. 

T. "Tell me to do something. Can I use another 
word instead of tell? " 

P. "You can use command P 

T. " Give me a command." 

P. " Hand me a cup." 

T. " What does this sentence do ?" 

P. "It mades a command." 

T " What kind of a sentence may we call it?" 

P. " A commanding sentence." 

T. " What is a commanding sentence ? " 

P. " A sentence that expresses a command is a com- 
manding sentence." 

T. " What mark have I placed after the last word of 
the commanding sentence ? " 



EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE 235 

P. "A period." 

T. " How do I begin a commanding sentence ? " 

P. "With a capital letter." 

T. " How do I close it ? " 

P. " With a period." 

T. " What is a sentence ? 

" What is a telling sentence ? 

11 What is an asking sentence ? 

" What is a commanding sentence? 

" How do I close every asking sentence ? 

" How do I close every telling sentence? 

" Write live telling, five asking, and five command- 
ing sentences. 

" Write the definition of the telling, asking and 
commanding sentence." 

The Exclaiming, or Exclamatory Sentence. 

T. "If you should see a house on fire, what would 

you say ? " 

P. " O, see the fire ! A house on fire ! " 

T. " What would you call these expressions ? " 

P. " Exclamations." 

T. " What do these sentences do ?" 

P. " They make exclamations." 

T. " What kind of sentences are they ? " 

P. "Exclaiming sentences." 

T. " Wliat is an exclaiming sentence ? " 

P. "A sentence that makes an exclamation, is an 

exclaiming sentence." 

T. " What mark do you find after the last word ? " 
P. " An exclamation point." 



236 GRAMMAR. 

T. " You may all write an exclaiming sentence." 
Require the pupils to repeat all the definitions, — see 
that they understand the idea before committing them 
to memory. Let ttem construct and write many sen- 
tences, and hold them rigidly to the correct use of capi- 
tal letters and punctuation marks, and require neatness 
in every exercise. Work on each sentence until it is 
right. If necessary to success, be willing to work three 
days on one short lesson. " Not how much, but how 
well " should be the motto. 

Review. 

Note. — To be committed to memory. 

1. A thought expressed in ivords is a Sentence. 

2. A sentence that tells or declares something is a 
Telling or Declaring Sentence. 

3. After the last word of every Telling or Declar- 
ing Sentence we must place a Period. 

4. A sentence that asks a question is an Asking or 
Interrogative Sentence. 

5. After the last word of everp Asking or Inter- 
rogative Sentence we must place an Interrogation 
Mark. 

6. A sentence that expresses a command is called 
a Commanding or an Imperative Sentence. 

7. After the last word of every Commanding or 
Imperative Sentence, we must place a Period. 

8. A sentence that makes an exclamation is an 
Exclaiming or Exclamatory Sentence. 

9. After the last word of every Exclaiming or 



USES OF capital LETTERS. 237 

Exclamatory Sentence, we must use the Exclamation 
Point. 

Note. — Simple as this may seem, it requires on the 
part of the teacher a great deal of patience to teach it 
thoroughly. This is a very important subject, and the 
pupils should be able to make practical application of 
the above points. " Make haste slowly." 

Uses of Capital Letters. 

The attention of the pupils should be called to the 
capital letters at the beginning of all these different sen- 
tences. This is very important, and one of the most 
practical rules in grammar. Require written exercises 
to be brought into the class, subject to the criticism of 
the class and teacher. 

Recapitulation. 

After the pupils have been made thoroughly familiar 
with the sentence, subject, predicate, and object, with 
the kinds of sentences, capital letters and punctuation 
marks, they should be required to form sentences and 
analyze them, and write the definition of all the terms 
that have been taught. A perfect understanding of the 
thought to be expressed is essential to correct analysis ; 
hence, the first step should be to prepare the pupils to 
analyze sentences they themselves have constructed. 
When they shall become quite expert at this, they may 
analyze the thoughts of others. 

Let it be the aim of the teacher to present the subject 
so pleasantly and attractively that pupils will not say, 
as is often the case, "What a dry, distasteful, uninter- 
esting subject." 



238 grammar. 

Sentences Classified According to their Proposi- 
tions. 

T. " Jennie, what have you in your hand ?" 

P. " I have a book." (Teacher writes the answer on 
the board.) 

T. " What is the subject ?" 

P. "The subject is '1.'" 

T. " What is the predicate ?" 

P. " < Have a book.' " 

T. " When the subject and 'predicate express a 
complete thought it is called a Single Proposition. 

"You may repeat what I have just said." 

P. " Suppose it does not express a complete thought ?" 

T. " It may, or it may not, express a complete thought, 
and still be a proposition; for a proposition is the union 
of a subject and a predicate. In the example. 'I have 
a book,' the thought is complete. In the example, ' If 
I go,' it is incomplete; both are propositions. 

" Fred, do you like all the boys in school ?" 

P. "I like the boys who study." 

T. " Read the first proposition." 

P. " ' I like the boys.' " 

T. " That is right : why is that a proposition ?" 

P. " Because it is the union of a subject and a predi- 
cate." 

T. " What kind of a proposition is it ?" 

P. " A single proposition, because it expresses com- 
plete sense." 

T. " Do the words ' who study,' make sense ?" 

P. "They do not, if used alone, but with the other 
proposition, they assist to complete the sense." 



LEADING PROPOSITION. 239 

T. " That is right. Are the words ' who study,' a 
proposition ? " 

P. "They are; because it is the union of a subject and 
predicate. A proposition by itself may or may not 
form a sentence." 

T. "What is such a proposition as 'who studv,' 
called ? Do you know ?" 

P. " It is called the second proposition." 

T. "You might call it that, but it would not be defi- 
nite: we will call it a clause, as it performs different 
offices. 

"In the sentence ' I like the boys who study,' which 
do you think is the principal proposition ?" 

P. " I like the boys." 

T. " Why do you think that is the principal ?" 

P. 'Because it is that which expresses the leading 
thought." 

T. "That is right. Let all repeat that. 

"That which expresses the leading thought is the 
Leading Proposition." 

P. 4 * And what of the words ' who study ?" 

T. '• Do they make complete sense ?" 

P. "They do not; they seem to have something to 
do with the principal proposition." 

T. " That is right, John. They tell the kind of boys. 
We may call them the * study boys.' It is not the 
principal proposition. What shall we call it? In a 

regiment we have principal officers and" (Fred 

answers) 'subordinate.' That is right, Fred. As the 
words ' who study ' modify the principal proposition we 
will call it a subordinate clause. Now, what is a subor 
dinate clause V" 



240 GRAMMAR. 

P. "The clause that modifies the principal propo- 
sition, is a Subordinate Clause." 

T. "You may all repeat it slowly; so you see that 
subordinate parts or elements are those that belong to 
other elements. They are called subordinate becauae 
they are under in order, or importance. 

"Now, let us find another kind of proposition. I see 
two boys in the park. Tell their names." 

P. "Charles and Frank." 

T. " What are they doing?" 

P. " Charles runs and Frank walks." 

(Teacher writes answer at the board.) 

T. "Read the first proposition." 

P. " Charles runs." 

T. " Read the second proposition." 

P. "Frank walks." 

T. "Does the last proposition belong to any word in 
the first ?" 

P. "It does not " 

T. " Does the hrst proposition belong to any word in 
the second ?" 

P. " It does not." 

T. " Does the first proposition express a complete 
thought in itself ?" 

P. " It does." 

T. "Does the second proposition express a complete 
thought in itself ?" 

P. " It does." 

T. " Since each proposition expresses a thought by 
itself, meaning that it is not dependent, what shall we 
call it ? I will tell you. We call the propositions Co- 



rijcvtEW. 241 

ordinate It means that the propositions are of equal 
rank We will now repeat. 

" Propositions of equal rank or order are called 
Co-ordinate.' i 

T. " A sentence composed of one proposition is 
called a Simple Sentence; a sentence composed of a 
principal and subordinate propositions, is called a 
Complex Sentence; a sentence composed of two or 
more co-ordinate p>ropositions is called a Compound 
Sentence." 

The teacher should not leave this division until the 
pupils can bring into the recitation written examples of 
all the different sentences. He should also require the 
pupils to analyze the sentences. 

Review. 

1. A proposition is the union of a subject and a 
predicate. 

2. A propositi by itself may or may not form a 
sentence. 

3. A single prorosition is a sentence ivhen it ex- 
presses a complete thought. 

4. A proposition may form an element of a sen- 
tence; it is then called a clause. , 

5. The principal proposition of a sentence is thai 
which exp>resses the leading thought. 

6. A subordinate proposition is one that modifies 
the principal. 

7. Co-ordinate propositions are those of equal rank- 
in the same sentence. 



242 



GRAMMAR 



8. A simple sentence is one composed of but one 
proposition. 

9 . A complex sentence is one composed of a prin- 
cipal and one or more subordinate propositions. 

10. A compound sentence is one composed of tivo 
or more co-ordinate propositio7is. 

Classification of Sentences a:sd their Elements. 



Sentences, 

Clauses, 

Phrases, 

Subjects, 

Predicates, 

Objects, 

Attributes, 

Modifiers, 



\ 



Simple, 
are classified in respect to ^j Compound, 



form and use, as 



Complex. 



Sentences, 

Clauses, 

Phrases, 

Sentences, 
Clauses, 
Phrases, 
Elements 
of 



^ are classified f Declarative, ] Affirma- 

{ in respect to I Interrogative, I tive, 

[ kind or prop- j Imperative, \ or 

J osition, as [Exclamative, J Negative. 

/ are classified in respect \ , f- ' 
> . i • -i -i .' • •< Subordinate, 

I to kind and proposition, ^ ,. ' 

) , -r. t • . ) Prepositional, 

f are classified in respect r T r» r -,. 

u- i I Infinitive, 

) ) Participial. 

") f Substantive, 

I are classified in respect j Adjective, 
i to office and use. 1 Adverbial, 



j 
i 



[Independent. 



Principal, 



Sentences. J 



! Subordinate. 



| Subject, ( Verb, 

\ Predicate, ) Copula and 

Object, ( attribute. 

Modifiers. 



CLASSIFICATIONS. 



243 



Elements 

of 
Phrases. 



are 



,1 *« a ( Principal, \ Connective, 

ciassiueii 1 \ o i 

. , < ( Subsequent, 

mt0 (Adjunct, j 



Adjunct, j Words, 



Connecting Elements 
are classified into 



Modifiers. 



ri ,. ( Co-ordinate, 

Coinunctions, ■{ c , ,. ' 

J ' ( Subordinate. 

Conjunctive Adverbs, 

y Copulas, 

Phrases, 

Relative Pronouns. 

Prepositions. 



i Interiections, 
Independent Elements. ) o i . J , • 

, n • •< Substantives, 

are classed into J „ 7 -, ,. v ' -, 

Words or Euphony. 



LrEOGRAPHY. 



INTRODUCTION. 



That we begin to teach where the philosopher ends, 
is singularly applicable to the three extra subjects of 
elementary schools — geography, grammar and reading. 

Few among teachers have seen that the scientific 
study of a subject implies that the mind has been first 
furnished with the ideas and facts which form the sub- 
ject-matter of it, and which it is the province of science 
to explain and classify. 

As a branch of school instruction, Geography has two 
stages, — a preparatory, and a systematic or scientific 
one. 

Primary Geography. 

In the primary or preparatory, the object should be 
to furnish the mind with so much of the material as is 
necessary to make the systematic study interesting and 
profitable; in the advanced or scientific study, the aim 
should be careful teaching to make it an instrument of 
intellectual discipline. 

Geography acquires its full value as a branch of edu- 
cation only when it loses the character of an accumula- 



FIRST STEP. 245 

tion of facts, undigested by the child's mind, and be- 
comes real in his memory, linked by association with 
the world of thought and action which immediately 
surrounds it or that which is within it. 

Tell the child to observe the lines of the map which 
hangs perpetually before his eyes, and talk to him only 
of the names upon it, and you will soon weary his atten- 
tion; but speak to him of the living men who inhabit 
that country, — tell him of their stature and aspect and 
dress, and ways of life, and of their forms of worship; 
speak of its climate — of the forms of vegetable and ani- 
mal life with which his eye would be conversant if he 
dwelt there — of trees and flowers, and you excite him to 
a new life. 

Fiest Step. 

I. Talk about the earth as a whole — of what it is composed 
and what may be found upon it. 

The heavens catch the child's attention early, and he 
wishes to know about the sun, moon and stars. He has 
a general knowledge of the earth; he has learned some- 
thing about land and water, varieties of surface, the 
location of places, vegetable products, natural and cul- 
tivated, and the animal and mineral kingdoms. 

These things may be said to comprise the elements of 
geographical study; and they maybe made the subject 
of direct study by the children. 

With these, the study of geography may begin; not 
by learning words from a book, but by actual observation, 
guided by the oral instruction of the teacher. 

In teaching the first step in geography, explain to the 
children that the sun, moon and stars are large balls, 



246 GEOGRAPHY. 

and that they resemble the ball we live upon. Tell 
them that we call this ball the earth, and that " the 
earth hangeth upon nothing," floating free in space like 
a bird in the air. To excite the pupils' curiosity, and 
give them a correct idea of the form of the earth, blow 
a few soap bubbles before them, and let them float in 
the air. Tell them that a body of the shape of a ball is 
called a globe or a sphere. Talk about the outside of 
different objects and tell them that the outside of an 
object is called the surface. The outside of the earth is 
called the surface of the earth. 

The immense magnitude of the great globe he cannot 
as yet imagine; at first be content to see that he under- 
stands its form and motion. 

Let the children see that if they should walk on the 
earth a certain number of boui*s or days in any direc- 
tion, they would come to the water. 

They will now see that the surface of the earth is 
composed of land and water. 

Tell them the fact that one-fourth of the earth's sur- 
face is land and that three-fourths is water. 

Now explain to the child the figures on the globe; 
point out which is meant for land, which for water; and 
show him his own country. 

Draw an oblong figure upon the board and divide it 
into four parts, let three parts represent the water and 
one part the land. Draw a circle upon the board and 
let three parts represent the water and one part the 
land. Use colored chalk. The illustrations will tend to 
impress the correct ideas on the mind. " Happy illus- 
trations excite curiosity." 

Now, on looking at the globe, the first thing that must 



FIRST STEP. 247 

st rike every one is, how much more water there is on it than dry 
land. Tell the children that we may ride for days and 
weeks on the water and not see any land. 

Let them see how very unequally the land is arranged ; 
instead of being spread evenly all over the surface, it is 
collected together, some portions very large and some 
very small. Let them see the roughness of the fields 
and roads and hills, not to speak of the high mountains 
or depths of the sea. 

In the foregoing account we have spoken of the earth 
as a sphere, or a globe, or an exactly round ball. But 
this though practically true for our purpose, is not 
strictly correct, for the earth is not exactly round. You 
can see it is not. On so big a ball as the earth how- 
ever, these things do not count for much. The earth, 
although so large, so many miles around it, may be 
travelled over — we can go around it. A train of cars 
at the rate of 40 miles per hour, would pass around the 
earth in about 20 days. 

Now, ask the children what may be found upon the 
surface of the earth ? They will give names to the dif- 
ferent kinds of matter, such as trees, shrubs, plants, 
rocks, and horses, cows, etc. 

Let them see that the different things named may be 
classified. Tell them to name the different things found 
within the earth that do not grow : as iron, lead, gold, 
silver, rocks, pebbles, sand, etc. Tell that these objects 
belong to the Mineral Class. 

Tell them to name the things only that grow out of 
the earth : as trees, plants, shrubs ; the different kinds 
of trees, plants and shrubs, 'Fell them that these objects 
belong to the Vegetable Class. 



248 GEOGRAPHY. 

Tell them to name the animals that are found on the 
land, in the water, and in the air. Tell them that these 
objects belong to the Animal Class. 

Ask the children which class they belong to, and tell 
them wherein they differ. That plants grow, breathe, 
take food and die. That brutes do the same; but that 
men differ in that they all possess a mind and a soul. 

For Recitation. 

1. The earth is a large ball or sphere. 

2. Its surface is composed of land and water; one- 
fourth is land and three-fourths are water. 

3. Minerals, vegetation and animals are found upon 
the earth. 

Second Step. 

II. Give instruction upon the relative position of objects and 
places. 

Draw their observation to relation, position or place, 
beginning with the situation of the things which they 
see around them, and the distances of these from each 
other. Question the children as to the position of 
objects before them, and lead them to describe how 
they are placed with regard to each other, as above, 
below, on this side or that side, etc. The teacher should 
represent the positions of these objects on -the board and 
request the pupils to copy the representations on their 
slates. These exercises will prepare them to appreciate 
the value of a map. Proceed with fixed divisions of 
space. Make clear the limits and form of its bound- 
aries. 

Study the position of objects and places in regard to 



iiiiri) siki'. 249 

absolute and relative distances. Make the school the 
first division of space. Map with accuracy all the 
things learned, and have the pupils reproduce the repre- 
sentations. 

Third Step. 

III. Give the children a hiowle&ge of the cardinal points of 
the compass in their use in geographical description. 

East and West. 

When children have been accustomed to determine 
the relative position of objects, they must be let to con- 
sider places in the same point of view; and to this end 
they should be made acquainted with the use of the 
several points of the compass. 

Let the class face the North. Ask them to point 
where the sun rises and where it sets. Tell them that 
the place in the heavens where it rises is called the East 
— that in which it sets, the West. Excite them to 
observe, both at home and at school, that the sun rises 
in the East and sets in the West. 

Close the lesson by a simultaneous repetition. 

* l That direction in which the sun rises is called the 
East; and that in which it sets, the West." 

North and South. 

Commence this with a repetition of the preceding one. 
Call on the children to place themselves with their right 
hand to the East and their left to the West, and then 
tell them that the point directly before them is the 
North, and that directly behind them the South. 

Ask (hem to repeat together, " If we stand with our 
right hand to the East and our left hand to the West, 



250 GEOGltAPHY. 

the point directly before us is the North, and that 
directly behind us, the South." Ask the pupils to face 
the East, the South, the West and the North. Let the 
children place a stick or draw a line with the chalk 
on the floor, in the direction of North, South, East and 
West. 

In such exercises the object is to occupy only so much 
time upon each new idea as may suffice to fix it in the 
mind. A figure should be drawn on the board repre- 
senting the compass, or better still a small compass 
should be exhibited. The teacher should see to it that 
the children are firm on one step of the ladder of knowl- 
edge, before they proceed to another, and not weary and 
disgust them, by keeping them too long on one subject. 

Semi- Cardinal Points. 

When we wish to represent the situation of different 
places on paper or on a slate, we call the top North, the 
bottom South, the right hand East and the left hand 
West. The teacher writes the four cardinal points on 
the board. But are things or places always exactly at 
the North, the South, the East or the West? Where 
may they be ? They maybe between any two of these 
points. A point half way between North and East is 
Northeast. What do you think half way between North 
and West is called ? Develop the other semi-cardinal 
points in the same way. Drill upon the above facts. 
Draw a square at the board and let the children mark 
and tell the cardinal and semi-cardinal jjoints. 

Draw a circle on the board and mark off the princi- 
pal and intermediate points. 

Let the teacher draw the outline of the room on the 



FOURTH STEP. 251 

floor in chalk, and mark the position of objects within it, 
and when a map of the room is substituted, place it first 
in a horizontal position. 

Let the pupils place the different articles in the room 
along the northern, the eastern, southern and western 
boundaries. 

Require them to draw the room according to the 
same scale, and mark the relative positions of the objects. 

Let them measure the length of the school room by a 
foot measure; see that it is correctly done. 

Let the children see that we cannot represent the 
dimensions of the room on the board by using the scale 
of feet, but that we must use the scale of inches. Now 
let one foot of the room be represented by one inch on 
the slate or board. If the room is twelve feet long, how 
many inches shall we make our line on the slate ? Twelve. 
Proceed in the same manner until the children obtain a 
correct idea of a scale. For example, the inch, the foot, 
the yard, the rod and the mile. 

Teach the location of streets and the direction of 
them; the public building, etc. Let the children see 
that in geography we need not say top and bottom, 
right and left, but we call them north, south, east and 
west. When you are in front of a globe or a map, the 
top is north, the bottom is south, the right hand is east, 
and the left hand is west. 

Fourth Step. 

IV. Give instruction and drill upon geographical defini- 
tions. 

Land Divisions. 
Draw an irregular figure on the board representing 



252 GEOGRAPHY. 

one of the divisions of the earth, — say South America. 
In drawing the coast, (that is, a rib or side — the edge of 
the land near the sea,) make the projections and inden- 
tations prominent, so that we may be able to use the fig- 
ure to give the children a correct idea of the shape of 
land and water divisions. The larger figure will repre- 
sent one of the mainlands of the world, as distinguished 
from islands, which, though large, are still evidently 
surrounded by the sea; and it is called a Continent. 

A prominent projection of land from the coast, — not 
quite an island, not quite surrounded by the water, — is 
called a Peninsula. It projects from the mainland or 
body, and generally is quite narrow at the point of pro- 
jection and gradually widens. Where there is a Penin- 
sula there ought to be an Isthmus, which is a neck of 
land connecting it with the mainland. 

Proceed in the same manner to develop all the land 
divisions. Continue the drill until all the children 
understand what is meant by the terms used — such as 
Continent, Peninsula, etc. 

Let the children draw many figures until they are per- 
fectly familiar with all the land divisions. 

Water Divisions. 
Let the children see that all the water of the earth 
belongs to one great ocean, sometimes called the sea. 
Tell them that the ocean is the largest body of water. 
Talk to them about the extent of the ocean, what is 
found within its waters, and the great thoroughfares of 
commerce. 

Gulf and Bay. 
Draw a figure with a prominent indentation in the 



BEGTM AT HOME. 253 

coast, and let the children see that a recess in the coast 
is called a Gulf and Bay. The gulf is usually the nar- 
rower and deeper, and the bay broader and more open 
of the two. In fact, the words are used without exact- 
ness of distinction. 

A narrow passage of water between two continents, 
not very deep, is called a Strait. A Sound is also a nar- 
row passage of water between two continents or islands, 
but much deeper. All of the water divisions may be 
represented on the board in such a manner as to convey 
correct impressions. Develop all the terms in the same 
manner. 

The teacher should not be content until these terms 
are thoroughly understood and mastered. The object 
of them all is to teach the pupils about the earth, and 
they are of no use if they do not do that. Get the 
pupils into the habit of looking at the country itself, 
finding out all the ideas they can and what they all 
mean. 

Begin at Home. 

The most important spot for us all in this and many 
other respects Is our homes. What sort of a country is 
it? What about its hills and mountains; its valleys and 
plains; its resources and thoroughfares? Can you 
answer all these questions? It is that sort of inquiry, 
begun at your own home and gradually inclining to 
other count lies and scenes till you know all about them, 
that is the useful part of the great science of man and 
nature of which Geography is an important pail. There 
is no subject which unites you to a higher, happier life, 
than Geography. Keep your eyes open, and you will 
see something to study every day of your life 



254 GEOGRAPHY. 

How to Teach Geography. 

Primary Geography should be strictly objective; 
Advanced Geography must of necessity be subjective. 

Objective instruction operates on objects present to 
the senses, perceiving in them certain principles and 
relations, and gradually realizing that the principles 
herein perceived are common to all objects of the same 
kind. 

This involves conception, generalization, and finally 
abstraction, — this is the law of development. 

I. Teach direction, and apply it to the school house 
and immediate surroundings. 

II. Teach dimensions, especially the smaller denom- 
inations, with frequent tests. Direction and dimen- 
sions are essential to conception of space and distances 
in space. 

III. Proceed with fixed divisions of space. Make clear 
the form of its boundaries. 

Study the position of things within the space in 
regard to distances and directions. Make the school 
room the first division of space. Map with accuracy 
all the things learned; have the pupils reproduce the 
maps. 

IV. Take the school-house grounds as the second 
division of space and apply the preceding principles; 
thence in succession the district, the township, the 
county, the State, the nation, the world. 

V. Study the vegetation, the animals, and the miner- 
als of the smaller spaces. Give names and uses, dis- 
tinguishing the wild animals and vegetation from those 
which are cultivated, 



ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. 255 

VI. Study the occupations and the trades of the 
people. 

VII. Study the manufactures and the forces employed 
in driving the machinery. 

VIII. Study the commerce and the transportation. 

IX. Study the social, religious and political organiza- 
tions. 

The above may be all taught objectively; for exam- 
ples of them come within the perception of every ordi- 
nary child, if he be but taught to use it. 

This local geography should be exhausted before 
undertaking the general study of the world; it gives the 
basis of understanding the subjective treatment. 

Advanced Geography. 

I. Study the form, size and position of the earth. 

II. Study its surface in respect to land and water and 
their relations. 

III. In studying particular divisions pursue a natural 
order, viz : outlines, surface, climate, vegetation, miner- 
als, animals, nations. 

General Caution. 

The geography of the common school is not true 
geography; it is a miserable hotch-potch of insignifi- 
cant fragments, and is utterly unworthy the great name 
it bears and the time it occupies. Gigantic facts, mag- 
nificent generalizations, splendid speculations, involving, 
as they do, the mightiest problems in several of the 
other sciences, are certainly not fitting food for little 
children's minds. Their imaginations are confounded 
at its first propositions. The huge round world, swing- 



256 GEOGRAPHY. 

ing unsupported in limited space, and wheeling with an 
inconceivable velocity along its trackless orbit, parcelled 
into vast expanses of continent and still vaster oceans, 
and peopled with a billion of human beings, what a con- 
ception is this to offer to a little child ! Picture it, 
explain, illustrate it as we w r ill, it still remains a great 
mystery of which nothing is learned but the vaguest 
ideas. Nor are its later problems less difficult than these 
first and fundamental notions. The alternations of day 
and night, with their varying lengths in different lati- 
tudes and different seasons; the variety and succession 
of the season and their relation to climate; the preces- 
sion of the equinoxes; the movements of the tides; the 
flow of the oceanic currents; the sweep of the winds; the 
great laws of climate; the geographical distribution of 
plants and animals, and the migrations and varying 
civilizations of the human race; — these surely are not 
questions for mere tyros in learning and novices in study 
to solve. 

Map-Drawing. 

Suggestions. 

1. Begin with the school-room and draw a plan of it 
on the board. 

2. Draw around it the plan of the yard. 

3. Let the children measure the dimensions of the 
room and the yard and draw the plan to various scales. 

4. Draw a map of the neighborhood, village, city, etc. 

5. Let the pupils indicate the various streets, public 
buildings, etc. 

6. Give thorough drill. 



NoKMI AMERICA. 257 

GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Introductory. 

Advanced Geography enables ns to give some culture 
to the understanding. Facts have to be classified, gen- 
eralizations to be made, laws to be discovered and the 
connection of causes and effects to be established. It is 
now clearly understood that the most profitable way of 
teaching the geography of a country is to take up its 
physical features first, and then the facts which depend 
upon them. To be made acquainted with the physical 
features of a country is as necessary to a geographer as 
the knowledge of the bones and great blood vessels 
of the human frame is to the anatomist. One in order 
to understand the real geography of a country, — its 
organic structure, if I may so call it, the form of its 
skeleton — that is, of its hills; the magnitude and course 
of its veins and arteries, — that is of its streams and 
rivers; — should conceive it as a whole made up of con- 
nected parts; and then the positions of man's dwellings, 
viewed in reference to these parts, becomes at once 
easily remembered, lively, and intelligible besides. 

The use of the blackboard in teaching geography is 
now general. Its relation to the use of maps is better 
understood than it was. It furnishes the means of ex- 
hibiting any portion of a map on a larger scale, and 
bringing out prominently any feature that may be 
required, — maps often confusing because so crowded. 

By means of colored chalk, the separate classes of 
facts maybe kept distinct and their relation more clear- 
ly shown. All facts presented to the eye are impressed 



258 GEOGRAPHY. 

on the mind. " The faithful sight engraves the knowl- 
edge with a beam of light." 

In the treatment of this subject, Physical and Politi- 
cal Geography will be associated as inseparable — as one 
subject — with this fact overlooked geography becomes 
a mass of meaningless details, without either cause or 
correlation, while its study degenerates into mere rote 
work. 

Study of North America. 

I. Position, 

1. North America is in the Western Hemisphere. 

2. It is in the Northern Grand Division. 

3. It is found in the New World. 

II. Extent. 

1. It extends from the Arctic Ocean almost to the 
Equator. 

2. It is about 4,800 miles in length. 

3. It is about 3,000 miles in width. 

4. Its area in square miles is 8,929,660. 

5. It is double the size of Europe, but only one- half 
as large as Asia. 

III. Form. 

1. In form this Grand Division is triangular. 

IV. Outline. 

1. Its outline is irregular. 

2. The projections and indentations are prominent. 

3. The Northern coast is the most irregular. 

4. The Atlantic seaboard is much more indented by 
bays and gulfs than the Pacific coast. 



COASTS. 259 

5. These inbreakings furnish good harbors, and this is 
a commercial advantage. 

V. Coast. 

Northern Coast. 

1. The principal projections from the Northern coast 
are the Peninsulas of Labrador, Melville and Boothia. 
The principal capes are Cape Charles, Cape Chidley, 
Cape Bathurst, and Cape Barrow. 

2. The principal indentations are Hudson's Bay, 
James Bay, Ungava Bay, and Coronation Gulf. 

3. The adjoining islands are Southampton, Fox Land, 
Prince William's Land, Prince of Wales, Prince Albert, 
Melville, and Grinnell's Land. 

4. The commercial advantages are limited. 

Eastern Coast. 

1. The principal projections from the Eastern coast 
are Peninsula of Nova Scotia, Cape Cod, Cape May, 
Cape Charles, Cape Henry, Cape Hatteras, Cape Look- 
out, Cape Canaveral, and Peninsula of Yucatan. 

2. The principal indentations are the Gulf ofSt. Law- 
rence, Bay of Fundy, Massachusetts Bay, Cape Cod 
Bay, Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, and Ches- 
apeake Bay. 

3. The adjoining Islands are New Foundland, Cape 
Breton, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Long Island, 
Bermuda, Bahama, and the West Indias. 

4. The commercial advantages are unlimited, since 
the Atlantic seaboard lies nearest the great markets of 
the Old World. 



260 GEOGRAPHY. 

Southern and Western Coast. 

1. The principal projection from the Southern coast 
is the Peninsula of Florida; from the Western coast, 
Corrientes, Cape St. Lucus, Peninsula of California, 
Cape Mendocino, Cape Flattery, and the Peninsula of 
Alaska. 

2. The principal indentations are the Gulf of Mexico, 
Bay of Campeche, Bay of Honduras, Gulf of California, 
San Francisco Bay, Gulf of Georgia, Bristol's Bay, and 
Norton Sound. 

3. The adjoining islands on the Western coast are 
Vancouver's, Queen Charlotte's, Sitka, Kodiak and 
Aleutian. 

VI. Straits. 

1. The straits on the Northern coast are Davis Strait, 
Hudson's Strait, Frobisher's Strait and Banks Strait; 
on the Eastern coast, Strait of Belleisle and Florida 
Strait; on the Western coast, Strait of Juan de Fuca. 

2. The commercial advantages are limited; few har- 
bors are found on the Southern and Western coasts. 

VII. Relief. 

1. The vertical configuration of the continent or 
island — that is, its elevation as a whole — varied by 
plains, table lands, mountains and valley, is called its 
Relief. 

The relief may be said to consist of elevations and 
depressions. 

The forms of relief are exceedingly varied ; the eleva- 
tions when they reach or exceed 1000 feet are called 
plateaus or table lands ; when less than 1000 feet, are 



Ki:i.lKKS OF CONTINENT^. 261 

called plains or low lands; the term hill is applied to 
ridges less than 2000 feet in elevation. 

A knowledge of the reliefs of continents is of the 
utmost importance. 

A difference in altitude of no more than 330 feet, is 
sufficient to produce a temperature of one degree, being 
equivalent to a difference of seventy miles in altitude. 

Again, the relief of a continent controls its drainage, 
shaping the river basins and directing the course of the 
rivers, and influences to a certain extent the direction 
and character of the winds and the distribution of rivers. 

VIII. Common Features of Continental Relief. 

1. Structure of Continents. — According to the 
theory of modern geographers there are six continents. 
There are certain grand features common to all — a 
peculiar combination of mountain systems, plateaus and 
plains. Each continent has upon one side of the centre 
a great mass of elevated lands, usually extending 
throughout its entire length, and constituting the 'primary 
feature of its structure. On the opposite side is found a 
smaller and less elevated mass extending through a part 
of the continent, and constituting the secondary feature 
of the continental structure. Between the primary and 
secondary elevations is a central depression, which forms 
the third feature common to all continents. 

These elevated masses are sometimes called the main 
axis and secondary axis of a continent. There is a 
marked unity of structure — one common plan pervad- 
ing all the continents. In each of the two Americas, 
the main axis extends through the entire length of the 
continent. The main axis lies near the Western shore; 



26 '2 GEOGRAPHY. 

the secondary axis near the Eastern. Very low plains 
occupy the interior; but the plains on the seaward slope 
of the axis are of only limited extent. 

IX. Surface of North America. 

The surface of North America is naturally divided 
into five parts : The Western or Pacific Highland; the 
Low Central Plain; the Eastern or Atlantic Highland; 
and the Pacific and Atlantic Slopes. 

a. Western or Pacific Highland. — The Pacific 
Highland, or Great Plateau Belt, which forms the prim- 
ary feature of North America, occupying almost all of 
the Western half of North America, extends from the 
Rocky Mountains to the Sierra Nevada. 

This region consists of a vast plateau, surmounted by 
two lofty mountain systems, the Rocky Mountains on 
the East and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges on 
the West, with numerous shorter parallel ranges lying 
between them. The breadth of the plateau between 
the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas is not less 
than 600 miles, and the more Northern portions have a 
breadth of about 300 miles; the plateau is quite low in 
the North, but rises gradually as it extends to the South. 
The elevation increases, through a succession of swells 
and depressions, from 800 feet near the Arctic shore to 
8000 feet in the table-land of Mexico, whence it decreases 
rapidly Southward. 

The Rocky mountains form the main watershed in the 
United States, and feed five of the largest rivers, — the 
Missouri, the Rio Grande, the Colorado, the Columbia 
and the Yukon. This highland includes the basins of 
the Columbia and the Colorado rivers, and between 
them the Great Basin of Utah. 



SURFACE OF NORTH AMERICA. 263 

The Pacific Plateau extends from the Rocky Chain 
on the East to the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Moun- 
tains on the West. The Eastern slope is short and 
abrupt, its base resting upon the plateau, which is from 
2,000 to 4,000 feet in elevation. The Western slope is 
long and gentle, descending into extensive valleys which, 
are but little above the level of the sea. 

Low mountains called the Coast Range lie between 
these border chains and the Pacific Ocean. The Coast 
Range North of Cape Flattery is broken into a series of 
islands. 

The Rocky Mountains rise to a height of 8,000 feet 
above the surrounding country; they are from 12,000 to 
15,000 feet above the sea level 

b. 1. The Atlantic Highlands form the secondary 
feature of the continent, and they extend from the 
Northern coast of Labrador nearly to the Gulf of Mex- 
ico, approaching, but not meeting the Western High- 
lands on the South. This region consists of the plateau 
of Labrador, with the Laurentide Mountains on the 
North of the St. Lawrence, and the Appalachian System 
and the adjacent low plateaus on the South. 

2. The Labrador Plateau is about 2,000 feet in eleva- 
tion, and the Laurentide Mountains are rarely above 
4,000 feel, 

3. The Appalachian region is composed of a succes- 
sion of low, parallel mountain ranges, separated by long, 
trough-like valleys; and a plateau about 2,000 feet high, 
which descends gently from the crest of the western- 
most range towards the interior of the continent. 

The average height of the mountain chain is about 



264 GEOGRAPHY. 

3,000 feet. The highest peaks are from 6,000 to 6,700 
feet in elevation. It has very little table-land. 

c. 1. The Low Central Plain lies between the two 
highlands of the continent which, with but slight varia- 
tions of level, stretch from the Arctic shores to the Gnlf 
of Mexico. A slight swell near the centre, designated 
the Height of Land, separates it into two parts, one 
descending northward to the Arctic Ocean, the other 
southward to the Gulf. This swell which connects the 
Atlantic with the Pacific highlands, is from 1,000 to 
2 ; 000 feet above the level of the sea. The Central Plain 
is formed by the long, gentle slope descending eastward 
from the base of the Rocky Mountains. 

2. On the South their intersection is marked by the 
position of the Mississippi River. On the North a broad 
low swell, approximately parallel with the Rocky Moun- 
tains, extends from Lake Superior to the Arctic Shores, 
separating the Northern plain into two vast basins. 

3. The Western basin, which is narrow and elongated, 
is connected with the Eastern by a break in the divid- 
ing swell, through which the Nelson River flows to Hud- 
son Bay. The Eastern basin, which is more expanded, 
is partly below the level of the sea and covered by the 
waters of the Hudson Bay. 

4. A series of remarkable depressions, occupied by 
the great lakes of the Mackenzie and Saskatchewan 
river systems, — Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca and 
Winnepeg — marks the intersection of the northern swell 
with the slope from the Rocky Mountaius. 

6. On the Height of Land, near its junction with the 
northern swell, are three vast depressions, diverging 
from a common centre, with a depth reaching consider- 



SURFACE OF NORTH AMERICA. 265 

ably below the level of the sea. These are filled by the 
waters of the great lakes — Superior, Michigan and 
Huron. 

Similar, though less extensive, basins in the St. Law- 
rence valley are occupied by lakes Erie and Ontario. 

6. The Central Plain consists of two immense slopes, 
— the Northern being the Arctic Plain, the Southern the 
Mississippi Valley. 

7. The Mississippi Valley occupies one-half of the 
entire area of the United States. The surface is undu- 
lating; parts are hilly; on the whole, the surface is that 
of a plain, with slopes toward the centre from off the 
two highland regions and a general slope from the 
height of land Southward to the Gulf of Mexico. 

8. The Plains. — The name of the Plains is given to a 
section of the country extending a considerable distance 
to the Eastward of the Rocky Mountains. It may be 
called a sloping plateau; there is no well defined limit 
at which the name of plateau must be exchanged for 
that of a plain. 

d. The Pacific Slope extends from the crest of the 
Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Ranges westward to the 
Pacific Ocean. Its average width is about 150 miles. 
Between these ranges and some lower elevations along 
the coast is enclosed the great California Valley. 

e. The Atlantic Slope extends from the Alleghany 
Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. It varies in width 
according as the mountains approach or recede from 
the sea coast. Upon the New England coast of the 
United States it is about 50 miles in width; at the 
mouth of the Hudson River, it varies to a mere strip of 
coast; it broadens southward to a width of 300 miles. 



266 GEOGRAPHY. 

The teacher should take up the rivers, lakes, climate, 
etc., as the next subject in order for study, based upon 
the following order, viz: 

X. River 8. 

1. Classification by river- systems. 

2. Description of particular rivers. 

a. Length and size. 

d. Availability for navigation. 

c. Availability for water-power. 

3. (Rivers of the particular locality.) 

XI. Lakes. 

1. Description. 

2. Uses. 

a. As yielding fish. 

b. For navigation. 

XII. Climate. 

1. As determined by latitude. 

2. As modified by particular causes, — altitude, prox- 
imity to the sea or the great lakes, winds, etc. 

3. (At the home of the pupil, — local geography.) 

XIII. Natural Advantages. 

1. (At the home of the pupil, — local geography.) 

2. On the surface of the earth. 

a. Nature of the soil with reference to agriculture. 

b. Forests, — nature and uses of the woods. 

c. Facilities for transportation afforded by the sea, 

rivers, lakes, etc. 

3. Within the earth. 

a. Useful minerals and metals — as coal, building 

material, iron, copper, lead, etc. 

b. Precious metals, — as gold and silver, 



INDUSTRIES OR OCCUPATIONS. 267 

4. Ill the waters. 

a. Sea-fisheries. 

b. Lake and river fisheries. 

XIV. Industries, or Occupations. 

1. Agriculture. 

a. Relative importance among the industries of 

the State. 

b. The crops raised. 

c. Statistics of crops. 

d. Cattle, sheep and hog raising. 

2. Manufacturing. 

a. Relative importance. 

b. Articles produced. 

c. Statistics of manufactures. 

3. Mining. 

a. Metals or minerals found. 

b. Mines, to what extent worked. 

4. Lumbering. 

a. Locality of the forests. 

b. Description of the method. 

5. The Fisheries. 

a. Locality of the fisheries, 

b. Kinds of fish taken. 

6. Commerce. 

a. What is exported. 

b. What is imported. 

c. Means of transportation. 

XV. Internal Improvements. 

1. Railroads. 

a. Local railroads. 

b. Trunk-lines. 



268 GEOGEAPHT. 

2. Canals. 

3. Navigation on lakes and rivers. 

Blackboaed Tabulation of the Relief. 
North America. 

f 1. The Plain. 

2. Rocky Mountains. 

3. Pacific Plateau. 

I. Western Highlands. «j 4. Cascade Range. 

5. Sierra Nevada. 

6. Coast Range. 
k 1. Pacific Slope. 

f 1. Atlantic Slope. 

! 2. Appalachian System. 

II. Eastern Highlands. { / m-i ?? n • °^ e * 

° ] 4. Tide Region. 

J 5. Plateau of Labrador. 
1^6. Laurentide Mountains. 

ttt ^ x i -di • ( 1. Northern Slope, Arctic Plain. 

III. Central Plain, j 2< gouthern Slop F e / M iss. Slope. 

IV. Height of Land. 

After this subject has been taught objectively and 
fully illustrated, the above tabulation should appear on 
the board and the pupils be required to recite topically. 

The pupils should name every important item con- 
nected with the relief, and the teacher should require 
the pupils to write a composition, using the tabulation 
as an outline. 

It is expected that after the subject is taught objec- 
tively all the divisions will be tabulated in a similar 
manner. 

In previous editions we have given a special treat- 
ment of the geography of the State of New York. This 



COUNTY GEOGEAPHIES. 269 

we now discontinue, as something similar j^is given in 
the State editions of most modern geographies. 

Those that desire specimens of the treatment of local 
geography, can obtain for 25 cents each Bardeen's 
" Geography of Onondaga County," or Northam's 
"Geography of Lewis County," and "of Oneida County," 
all of New York. We presume such little pamphlets 
have been prepared in other sections of the country. 



Physical Geography, 



INTRODUCTORY. 



The investigatioD of Climate and its modifications is 
the especial province of Physical Geography. 

The great agents are the air, rain, frosts, springs, 
brooks, rivers, glaciers, icebergs, mountains, and the 
sea. 

It is Climate, and Climate alone, that determines 
mainly the character of all vegetable and animal life. 

Climatic agents not only are now the most important 
and influential, but they have been so during all past 
geological ages. To account for all of the extraordi- 
nary changes of Climate would require many volumes, 
but I have studiously avoided introducing theories of a 
hypothetical nature. 

The conclusions are in every case derived either from 
facts or from recognized principles. 

The student should never rest until he gets at the 
reasons for what he sees about him. He should know 
something about the air he breathes, and the earth he 
lives upon, and about the relations between them. It is 
this great book of Nature, wherein each of us, young 
and old, may read, and go on reading all through life, 
without exhausting even a small part of what it has to 



ELEMENTS. 271 



teach us — it is that great book — Air, Earth, and Sea — 
which I would have you study. 



CLIMATE. 

Elements. 

1. What is meant by Climate? 

By climate we mean the temperature, the moisture of 
the air, the prevailing winds, and their results. 

2. What does the heat come from ? 
It comes from the rays of the sun. 

3. When do the sunbeams give the most heat? 

The sunbeams give the most heat when they fall the 
most directly upon any part of the earth. 

4. When do the sunbeams give the least heat ? 

The sunbeams give the least heat when they fall the 
most obliquely. 

5. When we speak of the heat or cold of the air, what 
word is generally used ? 

The word Temperature is used. 

6. When the air is very hot, what may be said of the 
temperature? 

It is said to be very high. 

7. When the air is very cold, what may be said of the 
temperature ? 

It is said to be very low. 

8. In our country, which part of the day is warmest 
— morning, noon, or evening? 

It is warmest at noon. 

9. Why is it warmer at noon than in the morning or 
evening ? 



272 CLIMATE. 

In the morning and the evening the rays of the sun 
fall in a slanting direction, and we receive comparatively 
few of the rays, because they are spread over a great 
surface. 

At noon when the sun is more or less directly upon us, 
then we receive more of them because they fall upon a 
comparatively small space. 

Rays falling directly from overhead are said to be 
vertical; those falling in a slanting direction are said to 
be oblique. 

Note. — A diagram put on the black-board will bring 
the matter home to the pupil's comprehension. Draw 
a horizontal upward curve; upon this draw two parallel 
vertical lines, two parallel oblique lines, and two parallel 
horizontal lines, striking at the same arc. The vertical 
sheaf of rays, striking the earth at noon, falls upon a 
small surface. In the middle of the forenoon or after- 
noon, the rays, falling obliquely, are spread over a 
greater surface. At sunrise or sunset no part of the 
sheaf touches the earth's surface except its lower side, 
and most of the rays are lost in the atmosphere beyond. 
Tell the pupils that the sun always shines vertically, or 
nearly so, on the equator, and on a considerable belt 
beyond the equator on either side. Now, just as the 
sunbeams fall more directly at noon than in the morning 
or evening, so they fall more directly during the sum- 
mer season than during the winter season. 

10. In our part of the world is the sun ever directly 
overhead ? 

In our country the sun centre is never directly over- 
head, and its rays fall upon us in the most nearly vertical 
direction on the longest summer day. 



ELEMENTS. 273 

11. When you speak of climate, then, what one ele- 
ment does it include ? 

It includes temperature — that is, the heat or cold. 
First Important Fact — Temperature — that is, the heat 
or cold of a place — is one element of climate. 

12. Does climate include any other element ? 

It does; in some countries immense quantities of rain 
fall; in others none, or next to none, falls there. In the 
rainless districts it would be a dry climate; where 
they have immense quantities it would be a wet or damp 
climate. 

13. When we speak of a wet or dry climate, what 
word is generally used ? 

The word moisture is used. 

14. When you speak of climate, then, what other 
element does it include ? 

It includes moisture — that is, whether it is wet or 
dry. 

Second Important Fact. — Moisture, or humidity — that is 
whether it is wet or dry — is another element of cli- 
mate. 

15. What is the first element in climate ? 

16. What is the second element in climate ? 

17. Does climate include any other element? 

It does; in some places they have a windy climate or a 
8 tor my climate. 

18. When you speak of climate, then, what other ele- 
ment does it include ? 

II includes the wind — Ave will call it the prevailing 
winds. 

Third Important Fact. — The prevailing winds form an 
element of climate. 



274 CLIMATE. 

19. What are the three elements of climate? 

The three elements of climate are Temperature, Mois- 
ture, or Humidity, and Prevailing Winds. 

20. If a climate is neither too hot nor too cold, what 
may it be called ? 

A climate that is neither too hot nor too cold is called 
temperate. 

21. When it is very hot or very cold, what is the cli- 
mate said to be? 

It is said to be extreme. 

22. What does an extreme climate mean ? 
One that is either too hot or too cold. 

23. Of a climate that is neither too wet nor too stormy, 
neither too hot nor too cold, what may be said ? 

A climate that is in every way fine and agreeable is 
called genial or salubrious. 

Review. 

How many elements are included in climate ? 
Three elements are included. 

1. Temperature— that is, the heat or cold. 

2. Humidity, or the state of being wet or dry. 

3. The prevailing winds. 

(a). A temperate climate means one that is neither too 
hot nor too cold. 

(b). An extreme climate means one that is either too 
hot or too cold. 

(c). A genial or salubrious climate means one that is in 
every way fine and agreeable, favorable to health. 

Note. — The above facts under the Review should be 
written on the board, and the pupils should be required 
to copy and commit them to memory. 



causes and modifications. 275 

Causes and Modifications. 

1. How can we tell what variety of climate any coun- 
try has ? What must we know before we can tell ? 

Note. — Before this division of the subject is taken 
up, a lesson should be given on the shape or form of the 
earth, lines upon the earth's surface, etc. 

When we concluded our lesson upon the lines on the 
earth's surface, we stated that the earth in its motion, 
like a wheel, revolves around an imaginary line called 
its axis. 

The most northern point of the earth's surface is 
called the North Pole, and the most southern point the 
South Pole. 

There is a line called the Equator, drawn at an equal 
distance from each pole, and dividing the earth-surface 
into equal parts. 

The countries where the sun shines directly overhead, 
or perpendicularly, are those that are near this line — 
the Equator — (use a globe if you have one, or at least 
a map; place a diagram on the board, illustrate fully). 

Here, 23]° north of the equator, is another line, 
called the Tropic of Cancer, and 23^° south of the equa- 
tor is the Tropic of Capricorn. 

Any country lying anywhere between the tropics is 
called intertropical. And since these countries have the 
sun directly overhead at certain seasons, and nearly so 
at all other seasons, they will have a hot climate. And 
:i^ we go nearer to the poles it becomes colder, till at 
list, at the polar regions, we would find only ice and 
snow. AVe learn from these facts that the heat through- 
out the year is greatest at or near the equator, and 



276 CLIMATE. 

diminishes gradually toward the poles. Thus we see 
that the climate of a place depends upon the latitude of 
the place. The latitude of a place is, therefore, of the 
first importance in determining its temperature, since a 
decrease of heat takes place with an increase of latitude 
as we travel, at the same level above the sea, from the 
equator toward the poles. 

So it will be seen that temperature is the fundamen- 
tal element in climate, and influences all the others. 

Cause. 

At the equator, and within the tropics, the greatest 
heat is experienced, because the sun is always vertical to 
some place within those limits, and the solar action is 
more intense in proportion as the rays are vertical to the 
earth. 

As we recede from the equator they fall more oblique- 
ly; and, because fewer of them are spread over a larger 
space, they are less powerful, and consequently have 
less influence on temperature. 

It has been calculated that out of 10,000 rays falling 
upon the earth atmosphere, 8,123 arrive at a given point 
if they fall vertically; 7,024 if the angle of direction is 
50°; 2,821, if it is 7°; and only 5 if the direction is hor- 
izontal. 

As will be seen, the amount of heat produced by 
the sun upon the earth's surface is greatest near the 
equator, and diminishes gradually toward the poles, and 
these causes are referable, first, to the spherical 
form of the earth, and the angle at which the sun's rays 
impinge upon the surface. 

|n the equatorial regions they are vertical to the sur- 



GENERAL LAW. 277 

face of the earth, and there produce maximum effect; 
but, on account of the curved outline of the globe, they 
fall more and more obliquely with increasing latitude, 
and the intensity of action diminishes proportionately. 
At the poles they are tangent to the surface, and their 
effect is zero. 

From these facts we may deduce the following 
General Law. 

The climate of a place depends principally on its lati- 
tude. 

Modifications. 

When we ascend mountains, the air becomes cool, 
cooler, cold, colder, till finally we find ourselves amid 
snows that last all the year around. 

We may travel several hundred miles from the equa- 
tor toward the poles, along the level surface of the earth, 
before we become sensible of a diminished temperature; 
but, when we ascend the mountains between the tropics, 
when we begin to increase our elevation, a rapid change 
of temperature is experienced, and those places that are 
elevated will be colder than those at the level of the 
sea. 

On an average, an increase of 300 feet altitude 
diminishes the temperature l°Fahr. ; hence, the rate of 
diminution is about 3° to 1000 feet. 

In large plateaus, however, the effect of altitude seems 
to be, in some measure, intensified by the great extent 
of absorbing and radiating surface uplifted into the 
atmosphere. In general they are considerably warmer 



278 CLIMATE. 

than the isolated summits of mountains of the same alti- 
tude. 

From this effect of elevation upon temperature, it is 
obvious that the mountain regions of the torrid zone 
have great varieties of climate. 

In this region we may find vines at the base of the 
mountain. The region of vines rises from the level of 
the sea to a certain height; in this zone of vegetation 
may be found the date-tree, the sugar-cane, the fig, and 
the olive; next come the hardy species of trees, as the 
oak, the laurel; higher, the birch, the pine, and the firs; 
higher still may be found the grasses; and, beyond, a 
few plants and lichens; and, still beyond, the vegetation 
ceases entirely, and we have reached the line of per- 
petual snow. 

Note. — Illustrate the zones of vegetation by a diagram 
at the board, using colored chalk. 

From these facts we gather that the temperature of a 
place depends not on its latitude alone, but on its eleva- 
tion, or, as it is called, its altitude. 

Cause. 

The lower and denser strata of the atmosphere absorb 
the greatest amount of the sun's heat, and are necessarily 
the warmest; the atmosphere is not much heated by the 
direct rays of the sun, but receives heat mainly by 
radiation from the earth's surface. 

First Modification — Tne altitude of a place modifies the 
climate. 

Mountains also modify the climate of large areas of 
lower lands in their vicinity. Their elevation intercepts 
the moist currents approaching from the oceans, and 



CAUSE. 279 

their cold summits condense the moisture, causing it to 
be precipitated. 

Consequently, the winds, on leaving the mountains 
for the interior, are dry, and give the characteristics of 
dryness to the climate of the interior areas. This modi- 
fication is well illustrated in our own country by the 
climate of our Western Plains, which are influenced in 
their climatic conditions by the high, cold wall of the 
Rocky Mountains. 

The valleys west of this range have abundant rain- 
fall, and, consequently, rich fertility, while those to the 
east have almost perpetual drouth, and consequently 
sterility. 

Therefore, another modification of climate is the prox- 
imity of mountain ranges. 

Second Modification — The proximity of mountain ranges mod- 
ifies the climate. 

Heat causes winds. Winds are motions of parts of 
the atmosphere; warmer portions expand, become lighter, 
rise, and their places are filled by cold air. 

Hence, tropical heat causes an ascending warm cur- 
rent of air at the equator. The heavy cold air from the 
poles, flowing toward the equator, causes Trade Winds 
on each side of the equator. 

Ascending air cools, contracts, and descends to the 
surface beyond the tropics, meets the polar currents, and 
forms the return currents. 

The motion of the eartli causes the polar and return 
currents to be turned from their northern or southern 
direction, and they take a northeastern or southwestern 
course. 

The character of the wind depends upon the region 



280 CLIMATE. 

whence it comes. Winds from the equatorial regions 
carry into the middle latitudes some portion of the heat 
of the tropical regions; while polar winds bring the low 
temperature of the latitudes whence they come. 

If there is nothing to break the force of the icy winds 
coming from the arctic region, we may expect that 
country to be cold even if it is pretty far south; on the 
other hand, if there is nothing to break the force of the 
hot winds coming from the torrid region, we may expect 
that country to be warm, even if it is pretty far north. 

In the United States the winds from the north are 
usually noted for their coolness, a property they derive 
from the frozen regions of Hudson and Baffin's Bay, 
while those from the south, coming from the Gulf of 
Mexico, impart a mildness throughout the whole coun- 
try. 

The comparatively mild climate of the British Isles 
is owing to the prevalence of main currents of air which 
are warmed by sweeping over the Gulf Stream. 

In the same latitude the shores of Greenland and 
Labrador are washed by the icy waters of the arctic cur- 
rents and swept by the polar winds. 

The one region has a mild climate, and is occupied by 
the most enlightened nations of the worlds; the other 
is a frozen waste, sparsely inhabited by degraded sav- 
ages and European traders. 

We gather from these facts that the climate of a 
place depends not alone on its latitude, altitude, or prox- 
imity to mountain ranges, but on the character of the 
winds. 

Third Modification. — The prevailing winds at a given 
place modify the climate. 



CAUSE. 281 

Oceanic climate is characterized by uniformity. 
Water has a great capacity for absorbing heat, and but 
feeble conducting power; hence, the ocean grows warm 
slowly under the rays of the sun, and never attains a 
high temperature. It also radiates heat slowly, and as 
fast as the surface particles become cool, they sink and 
are replaced by warmer ones from beneath; hence the 
cooling process is as gradual as the heating, and neither 
produces extremes of temperature. 

The ocean retains the heat longer than the land. In 
the summer the land is warmer than the sea, and in the 
winter the land is cooler than the sea. 

Note. — This is a general statement, and does not 
refer to daily variation of temperature. 

The air from the ocean moderates the heat of sum- 
mer and cold of winter. So the coasts have a more 
equable temperature than the interier. 

The land absorbs the solar heat rapidly, and the sur- 
face soon attains a high temperature. Especially is this 
the case when the soil is imperfectly covered with vege- 
tation, as in treeless plains or deserts. 

But, when the sun is withdrawn, heat radiates with 
rapidity, and a comparatively low temperature is soon 
reached. It is seen that the ocean preserves a much 
more uniform temperature than the land, hence islands 
and maritime districts have milder climates than inland 
regions under the same parallels of latitude. London, 
though situated in a higher latitude, enjoys a milder 
climate than Paris. The winters and summers of 
Ireland are much more temperate than those of any 
other country in the same latitude. 



282 CLIMATE. 

Sea-Breeze. 

Let us take an example in Nature, and see what 
passes on an island alone in the midst of the ocean. Let 
us remember that the land is heated more readily than 
the sea. In proportion as the sun rises above the 
horizon, the island becomes warmer than the neighbor- 
ing sea. 

Their respective atmospheres participate in these 
unequal temperatures; the fresh air of the sea rushes 
from all directions under the form of a sea-breeze, which 
makes itself felt along the whole coast, and the warmer 
and lighter air of the island will ascend into the atmos- 
phere. 

During the night it is the reverse. The island loses 
heat by radiation, and cools quicker than the sea. 

Its atmosphere, having become heavier, runs into that 
of the sea, under the form of land-breeze, and this inter- 
change lasts until the temperature, and consequently 
the density, of the two atmospheres has again become 
the same. 

This is the phenomenon observed on the eastern coast 
of Georgia, Florida, and almost daily on nearly all the 
seaboards. 

What takes place here on a small scale in the space 
of a day, passes on a great scale between the entire con- 
tinent and the ocean from one season to another. A 
moment's reflection will enable us to see that these dif- 
ferences of temperature, setting the whole atmosphere 
in motion, modify the climate of a place. 

So it is seen that the water of the sea keeps an island 
warm in winter and cool in summer. 



CAUSES OF CURRENTS. 283 

Iii the centre of a continent the wind in winter blows 
over immense fields of snow or ice, and keeps the air 
cool; and in the summer it blows across the heated 
land, and the air mast be very warm; the countries in 
the centre of a continent have an extreme climate; hence 
the nearness to, or remoteness of a place from the ocean, 
modifies the climate. 

Fourth Modification. — The proximity of a place to, or 
its distance from, the ocean modifies its climate. 

There are rivers in the ocean called ocean-currents. 
They consist of vast oceanic streams which keep up a 
perpetual circulation of the waters. Some of them have 
been traced many thousand miles. All the rivers in 
the world are insignificant when compared with some 
of these currents. 

They move on steadily through the water compara- 
tively at rest, and are often different from the latter in 
color and temperature. Some are hundreds of miles 
broad, thousands of feet deep, and have a course embrac- 
ing the larger part of the ocean in which they move. 

Currents exist not only at the surface, but in deep 
waters, where their course is frequently in a different 
direction from, sometimes even opposite to that of the 
surface-currents. 

The direction and velocity of currents are modified: 
1. By the revolution of the earth on its axis; 2. By the 
constant winds of the Torrid Zone; 3. By being turned 
aside by the shores. 

Causes of Currents. 

The expansion and contraction of water by heat and 
cold are, perhaps, the principal causes to which currents 



284 CLIMATE. 

are due. Heat causes water to become warm; warm 
water is lighter than cold, and when certain portions 
become heated, they rise by reason of their buoyancy, 
and are replaced by surrounding colder and heavier 
water flowing at the same time toward the equator. 
The ocean currents assist to cool the tropical and to 
warm the polar regions. 

Evaporation by solar heat causes large quantities of 
water to pass off in vapor; and it is this excessive evap- 
oration within the tropics which tends to lower the 
level of the water there. 

The revolution of the earth round its axis is still 
another powerful cause in producing currents, particu- 
larly those of the equatorial regions, which have com- 
monly a western direction. 

The winds of tropical climates, which blow con- 
tinuously or during long periods in one direction, also 
lend their influence in affecting the currents. 

The effect of the rise and fall of tides in producing 
an alternate flowing of currents in opposite directions is 
perceived in channels between islands, or between islands 
and the mainland. 

Thus, in the channel which connects Long Island 
Sound with the harbor of New York, known as the East 
River, strong currents alternately prevail in opposite 
directions, as the tide ebbs and flows. 

The Gulf Stream, which first becomes apparent near 
the northeast coast of Cuba, has a great influence on 
climate. The Gulf Stream, as it issues from the straits 
of Florida, is of dark indigo-blue, so strongly contrast- 
ing with the greenish color of the sea that the line of 
contact is distinctly traceable by the eye. Near its ori- 



CAUSE OF RAINS. 285 

o-in this remarkable current has a breadth of 32 miles 
and a depth of more than 2,000 feet; off Cape Hatteras 
the breadth is at least 75 miles, and the depth more than 
700 feet. 

The temperature at its origin is about 80 p Fahr.; on 
an average it is from 20° to 30 Q warmer than the adja- 
cent waters. 

The comparatively high temperature of this great 
stream modifies the climate of the eastern coast of North 
America; also as it sweeps across the Atlantic Ocean, 
in its northeast course to the British Isles and Norway, 
it modifies the climate of those countries. It will be 
seen, by a study of the ocean-currents, that the polar cur- 
rents bring cold to the eastern shores of the continents, 
and the return currents bring heat to the western 
shores, and that they produce contrasts in temperature 
in the same latitude on opposite shores of continents. 
These currents modify the climate; we gather from 
these facts that ocean currents modify the climate of a 
country. 

Fifth Modification. — Ocean-currents modify the climate 
of a place. 

The annual quantity of rain that falls in a place con- 
siderably affects its climate, by imparting a greater or 
[ess degree of humidity or dampness to the atmosphere. 
In general more rain falls on islands and on sea coasts 
than in inland districts; among mountains than in level 
regions; and within the tropics than in the other zones. 

Cause of Rains. 

Heat and winds produce rains. Heat causes evapora- 
tion; the vapors rise in the air; air at a given tempera- 



286 CLIMATE. 

ture has a certain capacity for moisture; when this limit 
is reached the air is said to be satui*ated with humidity, 
and the least lowering of the temperature causes a con- 
densation of moisture in the form of dew, fog, clouds or 
rain ; but,if the temperature is raised, the capacity for 
vapor being increased, absorption recommences. 

As long as the amount of vapor present in the air is 
much less than is required for saturation, evaporation 
goes on rapidly, and the air continues to absorb the ris- 
ing vapors. It is, therefore, called dry air. When the 
air is nearly saturated evaporation proceeds but very 
slowly; when saturation is reached evaporation ceases, 
and the air is moist or humid. 

Visible masses of vapor resting on or near the ground 
are called fogs, while those floating in the air at a con- 
siderable height are distinguished as clouds. 

Condensation — Its Causes. 

Condensation and rain are mostly caused by the cool- 
ing of currents of warm air laden with aqueous vapors. 
Cold causes condensation; the vapors condensed fall as 
rain; hence rain is caused by the cooling of air laden 
with moisture. The temperature of tropical winds ad- 
vancing into cooler latitudes is lowered, the moisture is 
then condensed, and the rain falls. Cold winds, if sat- 
urated, advancing into warmer latitudes become ex- 
panded, and their capacity fur moisture is increased; 
they become less humid, the clouds dissolve, and the air 
becomes clear and dry. 

Winds blowing over plains retain their moisture, but 
if they strike a mountain they become cooled, and the 
rain falls. Plateaus usually receive less rain than other 



CAtJSE OP CONDENSATIONS* 2-8V 

forms of relief, because the mountains, which form the 
borders of the greater number, prevent the vapors borne 
by the winds from reaching them. 

From these facts we see that the annual amount of 
rain modifies the climate of a place. 

Sixth Modification. — The annual quantity of rain modi- 
fies the climate of a place. 

The nature and covering of the soil have an influence 
upon the condensation of the vapor in the air. A region 
with nothing to shield it from the burning rays of the 
sun becomes intensely heated, and imparts to the super- 
incumbent air a temperature so high as to dissipate all 
clouds which may float into it from the surrounding 
atmosphere. A covering of vegetation, on the contrary, 
shields the soil from the sun's rays, keeps its tempera- 
ture lower, and promotes condensation. And whether 
a region be bare or covered with vegetation greatly 
affects its climate. From these facts we see that the 
nature and covering of the earth have an influence upon 
climate. 

Seventh Modification. — The nature and covering of the 
soil modify the climate of a place. 

The clearing of forests, the draining of swamps and 
marshes, the cultivation of the soil, etc., are among the 
operations of man by which the climate of a country is 
greatly modified and improved. 

Clearing a country of trees has the effect of raising 
the mean annual temperature, but at the same time 
greater extremes of heat and cold are introduced. Open 
grounds are always frozen deeper than woodlands, but 
the latter retain the snow and ice of winter to a much 
later period in the spring than the former. 



288 CLIMATE* 

From these facts we see that the cultivation of a 
place modifies its climate. 

Eighth Modification. — The degree of cultivation and 
improvement modifies the climate of a place. 

Both the moisture and salubrity of a region are influ- 
enced by its vegetation. 

The leaves of trees and plants give forth moisture to 
the atmosphere, and take from it its carbonic acid; hence 
the forests receive more rain than treeless regions simi- 
larly situated, while at the same time they check the 
evaporation of moisture from the soil ; thus they equal- 
ize the irrigation of the surrounding country and aug- 
ment the volume of its springs and rivers; hence forests 
effect an important modification of climate. 

Salubrity or the health condition depends greatly on 
the general character of the surface, as to evenness or 
unevenness. When the areas are even or flat the waters 
s]3read over larger surfaces, become stagnant, and are 
charged with decaying vegetable and animal matter. 

The adjacent atmosphere receives foul emanations 
from these unwholsome waters, and the region is thus 
rendered insalubrious and unhealthf ul. Where, on the 
contrary, the surface is uneven or broken, the waters 
collect into narrower currents and move with consider- 
able velocity, carrying away decaying substances, cleans- 
ing the region and rendering its climate more and more 
wholesome. 

Hence an important modification in a region results 
from its evenness or unevenness of surface. 

Ninth Modification. — The evenness or unevenness of the sur- 
face modifies the climate of a place. 



recapitulation. 289 

Recapitulation. 

Elements. 

First Important Fact. — Temperature — that is, the heat 
or cold of a place — is an element of climate. 

Second Important Fact. — Moisture — that is, whether it 
is wet or dry — is an element of climate. 

Third Important Fact. — The prevailing winds are an ele- 
ment of climate. 

General Law. 

The climate of a place depends principally on its lati- 
tude. 

Modifications. 

First Modification. — The altitude of a place modifies 
the climate. 

Second Modification. — The proximity of mountain ranges 
modifies the climate. 

Third Modification. — The prevailing winds modify the 
climate. 

Fourth Modification. — The proximity of a place to, or its 
distance from, the ocean, modifies the climate. 

Fifth Modification. — Ocean currents modify the climate 
of a place. 

Sixth Modification. — The annual quantity of rain modi- 
fies the climate of a place. 

Seventh Modification. — The nature and covering of the 
soil modify the climate of a place. 

Eighth Modification. — The degree of cultivation and im- 
provement modifies the climate of a place. 

Ninth Modification. — The evenness or unevenness of 
the surface modifies the climate of a place. 



290 CLIMATE. 

Kinds of Climate. 

1. A temperate climate means one that is neither too 
hot nor too cold. 

2. An extreme climate means one that is either too 
hot or too cold. 

3. A genial or salubrious climate means one that is in 
every way agreeable, favorable to health. 

Definition. 

The condition of a country in regard to temperature, 
moisture, and the prevailing winds, is climate. 

Climate Topically Arranged. 

i 1. Temperature. 
I. Elements. \ 2. Humidity. 

( 3. Prevailing winds. 

II. General Law. 

The climate of a place depends principally on its lati- 
tude. 

III. Modifications. 

1. Altitude modifies climate. 

2. Proximity of mountain ranges modifies climate. 

3. The prevailing winds modify climate. 

4. The proximity of the ocean modifies climate. 

5. Ocean currents modify climate. 

6. The annual quantity of rain modifies climate. 

7. The nature and covering of the soil modify cli- 
mate. 

8. The degree of cultivation modifies climate. 

9. Evenness or unevenness of surface modifies cli- 
mate. 



HOW TO TEACH CLIMATE. 291 

How to Teach Climate. 

1st. Develop every fact separately. 

2d. Develop the elements of climate. 

3d. Develop the general law of climate. 

4th. Develop the modifications of climate. 

5th. Develop the definition of climate. 

6th. Write the principal facts developed on the 
board. 

7th. Ask the pupils to commit them to memory. 

8th. Place the tabulation on the board. 

9th. Require the pupils to recite from the tabulation. 

lOtb. Reproduce the lesson. 

11th. Illustrate from the board as fully as possible, 
using colored chalk. 

12th. Require the pupils to assign a reason for every 
phenomenon connected with climate. 

13th. Give thorough drill. 



ftlSTORJ 



INTRODUCTION. 



The facts of history comprise the sum of the events 
that man has brought about in all the teeming centuries 
since first he inhabited the earth. The number is 
beyond the power of imagination to conceive, and his- 
torians do not attempt to enumerate them. They 
describe some of the grandest and most interesting 
features of a nation's life, and leave the rest to be 
inferred or forgotten. 

Study the Causes. 

History describes the past conditions and actions of 
men, and investigates the causes which have operated 
to produce them. History should be taught from a 
series of progressive stand-points. 

In the history of every nation there are certain prom- 
inent events from which as centres other minor events 
have seemed to emanate, and to which they bear refer- 
ence. It is only of these great events that we need to 
know the dates or the minute particulars. It is a use- 
less waste of time and labor to commit to memory a 
great number of dates to be speedily forgotten. Only 
such dates should be committed to memory as are indis- 



INTELLECTUAL DISCIPLINE. 293 

pensable as land marks in history. The sequence of 
events, rather than the precise date of each, is what is 
chiefly necessary. 

Ordinary Methods Useless. 

The teaching that goes under this name in schools is 
generally a farce. It consists usually in stringing 
together the names and dates with a few facts of the 
least important kind. Or, if more is attempted, it is 
reading in a text-book; in which case generally there is 
little within a child's sympathy or comprehension, and 
together are often jumbled, without purpose or method, 
facts of the most diverse kind, from which it is impos- 
sible to gain a clear conception of any of its elements. 
When such an array of facts is given as a whole to a 
child, it can produce nothing but embarrassment. 

History of Their Own Country. 

A knowledge of the history of their own country is 
about all that can be expected of pupils in our common 
schools, but in the higher schools it should be extended 
to universal history. 

No one can well do without this knowledge, and to 
the citizen it seems indispensable. The law should 
require the history of the United States to be taught in 
every school. 

Intellectual Discipline. 

The study of history furnishes a valuable intellectual 
discipline. To this end a simple preliminary outline 
sketch should be carefully fixed in the minds of the 
pupils. We would refer the teacher to the lessons on 
history. 



294 HISTORY. 

Moral Influence. 

History presents many examples of good and great 
men and women who honored by their noble deeds the 
age and country in which they lived. 

Moral examples have more influence upon the young 
than moral precepts. The heart is more easily moved 
to virtue by incidental teaching than by direct teaching. 

The great deeds of the past have been done by beings 
like themselves, whom they enjoy learning about. 

The history of such men as Washington, Franklin, 
Lincoln, and scores of others, proves an incentive to 
youth, and the moral seeds sown in open hearts germi- 
nate and eventually produce rich fruit. 

Little Interest in the Study. 

The reason why pupils take so little interest in the 
study of history is principally on account of the frag- 
mentary manner in which the subject is presented in our 
text-books. Lessons in history should be assigned by 
topics, and not by pages. All verbatim recitations of 
sentences and paragraphs should be forbidden, and 
pupils should be required to state the facts in their own 
language. 

Necessity op a Knowledge of History. 

History should be taught as a methodical record of 
important events. To every American citizen some 
knowledge of the history of his own country is useful; 
he should know of the founding, progress and growth 
of liberty in his own country. Towards the preserva- 
tion of good government and the permanency of our 
institutions, it is necessary that the principles of gov- 



METHODS OF TEACHING HISTORY. 295 

ernment and the leading events of history be taught in 
our American schools. 

The idea of national unity and of patriotism should 
rise above the stripes of party and the turmoils of war, 
and plant itself as the one thing vital to American 
institutions. That the subject of history may secure 
attention from the teacher, and study from the pupils, 
is the sincere wish of every loyal American citizen. 

Methods of Teaching History. 

4 
I. Directions. 

1. Interest the pupils by a familiar talk. 

2. Examine the lessons with the pupils. 

3. Draw maps and locate important places. 

4. Let the maps be examined and criticised. 

5. Bring out the prominent, salient facts, with clear- 
ness. 

6. Require pupils to classify and tabulate the lesson, 
and recite from the tabulation. 

V. Do not require dates too freely. 

8. Let the pupils state the causes of the different wars 
and their effects. 

9. Teach history as a methodical record of important 
events. 

10. An Objective Representation should be given by 
means of maps and charts; drawings and diagrams 
should be placed on the board of all the important mat- 
ters in the history of the nation. 

History, (Model Form.) 

I. Directions. 

I. What event? 2. What causes? 



296 



HISTORY. 



3. What battle ? 7. What means ? 

4. What time ? 8. What losses ? 

5. What place? 9. What results ? 

6. What persons? 

Taking the directions for the model form, we have 
the following lesson : History of the Battle of Bunker 

mu. 

1. What event ? Revolutionary War. 



2. What causes 



A 



['1. Rights of arbitrary 
government claimed 
f 1. Remote <{ by the British. 

| 2. Character of the 
(^ King George III. 

(^2. Direct, j 1. Importation Act. 
( 2. Stamp Act. 



3. What Battle ? Bunker Hill. 

4. What time? 1775, June 17th. 

5. What place ? Breed's Hill. 



6. What persons ?< 



7. What means ? 



r (a) Gen. Ward. 
American) (b) Gen. Prescott. 
Generals. J (c) Gen. Putnam. 

I (d) Gen. Warren. 



f (a) Gen. Gage. 
British J (b) Gen. Howe. 
Generals. 1 (c) Gen. Clinton. 

(^ (d) Gen. Burgoyne. 

1. American — limited. 

2. British — unlimited. 



REVIEWS. 297 

f 1. American — 

115 killed, 305 wounded 
8. What losses ? <( and 32 prisoners. 

2. British— 
(_ 1054 killed and wounded. 

f 1. Remote — 

I Gaining our Inde- 

1. American. <J pendence. 

I 2. Direct — 

9. What results?^ I Encouraging. 

( 1. Remote — 

o - + . , ) Defeat. 

L 2. British. ^ 2 Dir(?ct _ 

^ Discouraging. 

This model form may apply to a period of our coun- 
try's history, or to a battle of that period. 

Associate, as far as possible, geographical knowledge 
with the historical. 

Tabulated Forms. 

1. Discoveries and Explorations. 

2. Settlements. 

3. Wars and Adjustment of rival claims, culminating 
in the birth of the nation. 

4. Period of Presidents. 

Reviews. 

1. Chronological. 

2. Biographical. 

3. Geographical. 

The review should take three distinct forms. In the 
Chronological, the pupil should state all of the princi- 
pal dates; in the Biographical all that has been learned 
in regard to particular individuals; and in the Geogra- 



298 HISTORY. 

phical, whatever he can state of all important facts 
relating to the history of a locality. 

These reviews may be made spirited exercises, by 
requesting the class to write a few of the essential dates, 
the sequence of important events, the names of impor- 
tant individuals. The system of the reviews above 
suggested, must, if faithfully carried out, result in a 
thorough unifying of the general subject of history. 

Incidental Lessons. 

Many of the facts of history may be given in reading, 
and especially in geography lessons. Such facts would 
embrace pictures of social condition, growth of manu- 
factures and of populous districts, actions that have 
made particular places celebrated, and incidents in the 
lives of remarkable men. 

Such facts are to be given that the mind, furnished 
with some of the material of history, may pursue with 
more advantage to itself its systematic study. 

Lessons on any subject are thus more adhesive than 
when given to a mind entirely ignorant of it. 

Ingenious Expedients. 
United States history may be taught in a way to 
make it of very little use. To memorize a dry narrative 
will be of little avail except to inspire disgust with his- 
tory in general. But all modern text-rules accept the 
topical method of arrangement, at least in their sum- 
maries, and one book recently published has made this 
topical review entirely practicable in every school. We 
refer to " Helps in Fixing the Leading Facts of American 
History" By Henry C. Northam. 16mo, cloth, pp. 
298, price 15 cts. 



GENERAL &EMAEKS. 299 

This book can be used in the ordinary mixed school 
alone, and in the higher schools, in connection with any 
or all the histories. 

Here all facts are 1775. L — exington. 
presented in groups. 1776. I — ndependence. 
The key-word to the 1777. B — urgoyne's Surrender. 
Revolution, for in- 1778. E — vacuation. 
stance, is LIBER- 1779. R — etribution. 
TY, as shown in the 1780. T — reason, 
accompanying table 1781. Y — orktown. 
of Key- Words ; and in like manner the events of the late 
civil war are kej)t chronologically distinct by the key- 
words SLAVES FREED. Chart No. 1 indicates by 
stars the years in each decade from 1492 to 1789 in 
which the most remarkable events occurred, while the 
colored Chart No. 2 arranges the events under the Con- 
stitution in the following groups : (1) Acquisition of 
Territory, (2) Financial Matters, (3) Tariff, (4) Treaties 
and Compromises, (5) Wars and Rebellions, (6) Impor- 
tant Proclamations, (7) Great Inventions, (8) Slavery, 
(9) Epidemics, (10) Conflagrations, (11) New States, 
(12) Deaths and Resignations of President and Vice- 
President. 

Another book recently published, called, " A Thous- 
and Questions in United States History," (price $1.00), 
puts many of the facts in a new light, and by a series 
of grouped questions at the close impresses the perspec- 
tive of the whole most forcibly. 

General Remarks. 

In all your teaching the principle of proceeding from 
the known to the unknown musl be followed. A clear 



300 HISTORY* 

picture of the present must be drawn, embracing, in 
their order, all of the above particulars. The method, 
whatever it may be, should quicken the pupils' observa- 
tion, and lead them to see some importance in matters 
of everyday life. Every succeeding lesson should bring 
up vividly the condition of man in the past, and com- 
pare it, in its several particulars, with things now. This 
will make more and more evident how great has been 
the change, and how much for the better. The pupils 
should see how events, both great and small, have con- 
tributed to the prosperity and the advancement of the 
people. 

Aim in Teaching History. 

The aim might be to cultivate the intellect, for which 
it has rich and varied matter adapted to exercise each of 
its faculties. 

The aim in teaching history should be to inculcate 
those moral lessons which it is the office of history to 
teach by example. What, for instance, could be better 
adapted to produce a spirit of contentment and thank- 
fulness, than a clear knowledge of the present condition 
of our country, with its points of superiority over that 
of other nations ? What better opportunity can be de- 
sired for showing and enforcing the necessity of char- 
acter and skilled industry thau is afforded, while tracing 
the improvements and the progress of our nation for the 
past one hundred years ? 



Natural ^Science. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Can the natural sciences be profitably taught to the 
average pupils in our schools? Our first inquiry leads 
us to distinguish between the natural and the artificial 
studies to which the children are introduced. 

The child's mind is an instrument for acquiring rather 
than using knowledge. He voluntarily begins the study 
of nature. Here he goes to school long before his par- 
ents send him. He touches with child-hand many forces, 
and tries to grasp them. His studies are natural, for 
they are in the order of his mental development. Study 
is play; play is study. The objective part of mathe- 
matics unfolds to him the shapes and numbers of 
things. He begins physics with the weight of his toy, 
or watching the ripple and dash of brook, or the whirl 
of the water wheel. He opens his botany when he 
plucks a flower, distinguishing color and form. He no- 
tices the material of rocks, and gathers various stones 
like a zealous mineralogist. 

A child confined as most of our pupils are to the read- 
ing, writing and arithmetic method of discipline, might 
as well be brought up in a desert as in the world of 



302 Statural science. 

beauty and power which surrounds him. His eyes are 
gradually closed to a thousand alluring truths; his ears 
are dulled to the myriad voices of nature. It is a just 
inference from these considerations, and an acknowl- 
edged fact, that, to a majority of pupils in the public 
schools, the acquiring of knowledge is uninteresting and 
positively irksome. 

But right teaching requires that the child's powers of 
knowing accurately, should be developed, and hence 
should begin and largely continue with his senses. 
Words and number, over which so much time is spent 
in reading, spelling and arithmetical problems, are val- 
uable to his mental development, as they are associated 
with things really known. Hence the elements of sci- 
ence furnish the proper material for such study. Knowl- 
edge is not power to the child, if it is abstract. He can- 
not use knowledge which lies beyond the sphere of his 
daily observation and experience. What the State needs 
is intelligent citizens, and intelligent youth from 
whom they can be made. These come of the 
power of knowing and judging accurately. We 
claim for the Natural Sciences this effect on the child. 
They deal with facts more sensible than those of arith- 
metic. The parts of a leaf or or a flower are definite, 
easily comprehended, and classified with certainty. This 
is true of the nature and species of the common animals, 
shells and insects, the constituents of a stone, the quali- 
ties of an acid or gas, the history of a rock traced in 
forms of life, the nature and effect even of geological 
changes. 

No wide range of knowledge is required to under- 
stand definitely and surely scientific facts simply pre- 



POSITIVENKSS OF CHARACTER. 303 

sented to the youthful mind. It easily comprehends 
them as a whole. We claim, therefore, that to what- 
ever degree the reasoning faculties should be developed 
to furnish the child-mind with power, this is best se- 
cured by its reasoning on facts and things rather than 
on ideas of the imagination, or history, or morals, to 
which children's studies are usually confined. The last 
knowledge gained by man is the correct understanding 
of human nature, of the causes of human actions. The 
sciences teach the relations of cause and effect in their 
clearest manifestions. With enlarged comprehension 
the child may learn the secondary character of causes. 
He will trace their relation to effects with the certainty 
of conviction to his mind. Thence will be imparted the 
element of positiveness to the pupil's acquirements and 
habits of character. He learns to act unwaveringly on 
what he knows, and to know positively that upon which 
he acts. Correcting by his own observations the con- 
clusions to which he is lead by the inductive methods of 
science, he gains independence in thought and with that 
confidence of his own powers of judging which are the 
safeguards of his character and of his rights as a free- 
man under our republican institutions. 

Thus early introduced to the elements of science, the 
foundations of his character as a citizen are more broadly 
laid. The child becomes more inclusive in thought, 
more inventive through familiarity with the mechan- 
ism of nature, and more appreciative of the wealth and 
beauty of his country's resources. Taught to observe, 
he never ceases to be affected by the changing lines and 
hues of nature which his daily vision embraces, and the 
elements of a true aesthetic culture find place in him 



304 NATURAL SCIENCE. 

which will add to his certain worth and power as a citi- 
zen. The old idea that knowledge is for discipline is 
faithfully maintained in our education. Yet knowl- 
edge is one of the natural desires of the mind. The 
true science of education will make :t a pleasure. This 
will require for the senses larger opportunity than they 
now enjoy. Moreover, we owe to the State and its free 
institutions, to raise the standard of intelligence and 
culture among the people, among mechanics, farmers, 
merchants, and laborers in the mill or street. A dis- 
cernment of the true nature and qualities of things in 
their daily use will secure this far better than drills in 
spelling, arithmetic and grammar. The mass of our 
citizens are not intelligent enough to understand one- 
half the instruction contained in a good weekly news- 
paper. 

We make, therefore, this demand for the sciences — 
first, that they have an equal place with the usual 
studies of primary and grammar and district schools; 
secondly, that our teachers be required to make plain 
the elements of the sciences to pupils below fourteen 
years of age, at the expense of rote-drills and problems 
in arithmetic, grammatical analysis, spelling without 
definitions, and the time spent in preparing for preten- 
tious written examinations, imposed at too early an age, 
that have become one of the worst abuses of an artificial 
system in public work. 

Methods of Teaching. 

We are concerned next with the methods of teaching 
these sciences in district schools, or grades below the 
high school. The efforts of authors of elementary text- 



MKTI10DS OF TEACHlNo. 305 

books in science are not entirely successful; most of 
them are still too technical. There is less vividness in 
the statement of the facts of science, less personification 
ami idealizing of the study than a child's apprehension 
demands. The ancients taught their children the forces 
and sounds and shapes of the waters and fields and 
forests, by personifications of nymphs and dryads, gods 
and godesses, in whose histories and habits they were 
personally interested. So should the stories of insects, 
fishes, mollusks, birds, and well-known animals, or of 
plants and stones, be«told without text-books by the 
teacher, with scientific truthfulness as to their modes 
of life and motion. Thus children would become famil- 
iar with their living forms. With text-books still defec- 
tive, the teacher's opportunity lies in what President 
Hill calls the incidental method. Let her have speci- 
mens of minerals, leaves, insects, flowers, pictures of 
birds and animals, and simple apparatus for illustrating 
chemical and physical forces, in order to make real to 
her classes the subjects of the lesson. By a hundred 
well selected stereoscopic pictures she could teach phys- 
ical and political geography as effectively as the shapes, 
circles, and seasons of the earth by a globe. Thus the 
text book in the hands of a suggestive and excursive 
teacher will become secondary to her personal power to 
make knowledge real and interesting to the youngest 
pupils in her classes. Yet the text-book in science will 
give the study equal dignity with the arithmetic in the 
mind of the scholar, whilst it corrects the unscientific 
or garrulous tendencies of the teacher. 

Moreover, no other studies will so naturally develop 
the personal power of the teacher. Proceeding by the 



306 NATURAL SCIENCE. 

method of nature, step by step from the known to the 
unknown, she will awaken enthusiasm in the class, and 
from the fulness of her devotion to the subject there 
will be an overflow into the minds of the pupils. Rote- 
teaching in these elements of science is utterly defence- 
less. Every class of facts and every principle involved 
should have illustration from the wide range of nature. 
The living way of* Sauveur in language, should be applied 
to the sciences. Every sense and power of the child 
can be grasped and applied to them by the live 
teacher. 

Chief Purposes of Object Lessons. 

The chief purposes of the object lessons are two: first, 
to cultivate habits of careful observation and reflection; 
and second, to give facility in oral description. When 
properly given they involve the systematic discipline of 
the perceptive faculties and of the judgement, of imag- 
ination and the memory of facts, and in the use of lan- 
guage. 

The method that should be pursued is that known as 
the objective method. This presents two distinct 
though intimately related departments; perceptive teach- 
ing, in which the object, as an acorn, an egg, a leaf, or 
a piece of coal, is directly presented to the pupil's senses; 
and conceptive teaching in which impressions previ- 
ously received are recalled, arranged and utilized, the 
objects themselves being presented to the senses during 
the lesson. A lesson upon an oak, an elephant, or a 
thunder storm would fall under the latter department. 
The use of pictures, models, or other sensible represen- 
tations of objects, is an important combination and mod- 
ification of the two departments. 



THE VITAL ELEMENT. 30*7 

Definitions should be very sparingly introduced, and 
never in the first stages of a subject. If given at all, 
they should sum up knowledge already attained. They 
should be as brief as possible and should be carefully 
prepared for by a process at once inductive and objec- 
tive. The words organic, inorganic, vegetable, animal 
and mineral, are prominent among the very few terms 
requiring definition. In every stage of the lessons, with 
the exception of a few indispensible definitions, the 
language used by the pupil should be entirely his own, 
and all set forms of words should be carefully avoided. 
"Familiar objects," and familiar animals, plants and 
minerals should take precedence of all others in the 
selection of topics. 

The process employed will necessarily present two dis- 
tinct stages in accordance with the two chief purposes 
of these lessons already referred to. The first may be 
called the analytic or preparatory, and furnishes the 
principal discipline of the powers of observation and 
reflection. In this stage, which is largely conversa- 
tional, the teacher leads the pupils by questions or oth- 
erwise to discover or remember the properties or pecu- 
liarities of an object, or to state any other important 
facts associated with it. The points thus considered 
should be written upon the black-board in very brief 
synoptical form, but each only after it has been dwelt 
upon. 

The Vital Element. 

The vital element in this part of the work, that which 
gives it a living interest to the pupil, is the discovery or 
learning of new facts or the gaining of new ideas about 
the object under consideration. It is evident that from 



308 NATURAL SCTENCE. 

the nature of the case this important element must be 
chiefly limited to the first presentation of the object. 
Reviews, although for certain purposes indispensable, 
soon become, at least as far as this element is concerned, 
much like " a thrice-told tale." This makes it all the 
more important that the teacher should have an outline 
of the lesson carefully prepared beforehand, so as to be 
sure to include the points most likely to be interesting 
and instructive. Any additional point or fact after- 
wards drawn from the class may be readily incorpor- 
ated. 

It should also be remembered that the effort to 
" develop the perceptive powers " of children has its 
limit, especially when applied to large classes. In teach- 
ing a little group of four or five, comparatively little 
difficulty should be found by the skilful teacher. But 
when the class ranges in number from forty to sixty in 
the grammar school, and to seventy-five in the primary, 
and when at the same time owing to tho pressure of the 
other and more directly important exercises of a graded 
school the time given to oral lessons is limited to a very 
few minutes, it is evident that the problem is a different 
and a more formidable one. 

In the first lesson upon any given object or phenome- 
non, unless great care is taken to prevent it, a few 
pupils of naturally quick perceptions will give most of 
the responses, and the rest of the class will be as really 
"told" by their classmates as if the information had 
been given by the teacher. 

It is true that in both cases there is an exercise of the 
perceptive faculties; but it is obvious that the mental 
Condition in which we follow and verify a statement 



OBJECT LESSONS. 309 

made by another is usually one of far less vigorous and 
profitable activity than that in which we discover a fact 
of ourselves. The former may be called the perception 
of discovery, the latter the perception of verification. 
Nevertheless, from the very nature and condition of 
class-teaching, the lower and the less profitable form of 
the mental exercise will be the predominating one. The 
methods of reducing this evil to a practical minimum 
will be obvious to the experienced teacher. It is also 
well for us to consider how large a part of what we call 
our own knowledge has become ours only through veri- 
fying the statements and perceptions of others. 

The processes and results of this first or preparatory 
stage of the work, important and interesting as they 
may be, are entirely subordinate to the second stage. 
The preparatory stage collects the material for the work 
that is to follow; the lumber, lime, bricks and stone for 
the edifice that is now to be constructed with them. 

Subject — Salt. 

Let us suppose that the subject of our lesson is Salt. 
The teacher has given the lesson with due attention to 
the requirements of the objective method. The quali- 
ties, as learned by the senses, the kinds, uses and sources 
of salt have been considered. To these points have been 
added the chief source of our own supply, the singular 
fact that it is a mineral food, its necessity to the health 
of a body, a brief reference to its ancient use as a sym- 
bol of hospitality and to certain superstitions which still 
cling to it, together with such other simple and inter- 
esting facts as seemed appropriate. 

In that stage of the lesson which we have now 



310 



NATURAL SCIENCE. 



reached, the chief discipline is of the memory of facts. 
" What do you know or remember about salt ?" should 
be the teacher's only question, except when an error 
is made in the statement of facts, when a proper ques- 
tion or two should lead to its correction, not by the 
teacher, but by the class. The points as written upon 
the blackboard in the order in which the pupils remem- 
ber them will be something like the following, omitting 
the prefixed numerals, which will presently be 
explained : 

Salt. 



3. Taste, 

4. Seasoning, 
1. White, 

7. Kinds, 

8. Mines, 



9. Springs, 6. Made into Soda, 

10. Ocean, 2. Soluble, 

11. Sparkling, 13. Hospitality, 

12. Granular, 14. Superstitions, 
5. Preserves meat and fish. 

The next step is to have the class, not the teacher, 
condense and arrange this miscellaneous list of items 
into a brief and orderly synopsis. This is a point of 
prime importance, but is so simple in practice that any 
ordinary class will need but one illustration in order to 
apply the principle. With beginners this will be best 
understood by illustrating with some short story — one 
well-known to the pupils is best. Whittington and his 
Cat would do admirably. Write the chief points of the 
legend on the blackboard in brief, synoptical form, but 
in an absurdly illogical order : 

" Whittington — a chest of gold — goes to sea — born in 
London — Mayor — cat given him — dies respected — poor 
boy, etc., etc." 

If now the teacher will begin to tell the story, follow- 



OBJECT LESSONS. 311 

ing the exact order of the synopsis, the class will soon 
object, and may readily be lead to number the items 
in the order in which they should be stated in telling 
the story. 

A very little practice will enable the class to number 
the items relating to salt substantially as they are num- 
bered in the synopsis already given. When these are 
arranged according to the principles of object teaching, 
they will condense into — 

Salt. 

1. Qualities — 3: White; soluble; saline taste. 

2. Kinds — 3: Rock; bay; table. 

3. Uses — 3: Seasoning; preserving meat, etc., soda. 

4. Sources — 3: Mines; springs; ocean. 

5. Associations — 2: Hospitality; superstitions. 

In making up a final synopsis such as this, great care 
should be taken not to overload a subject by a multi- 
plicity of details. To accomplish this, only the most 
important items of the irregular synopsis should be 
taken. To attempt more is to cause the lesson to break 
of its own weight. Most of the objects properly selected 
as the basis of the lessons of the lower grades may 
readily be reduced to form seven to ten items. The 
smaller the number the better. 

Now what use is to be made of this synopsis? It is 
obvious that if the pupil has the synopsis before him on 
the blackboard and is called upon to state without be- 
ing questioned what he knows about salt, the synopsis 
will be to him a brief set of arranged suggestions or 
notes, and that with a little practice he will be able 
with its aid to make a "continuous oral statement." 



312 NATURAL SCIENCE. 

But a much more important use can be made of this 
synopsis. 

The next step is to train the class to reproduce it for 
themselves. This will be found to be of great practical 
importance, and is indeed indispensable. The memory 
will now be called into exercise to remember the facts, 
and the brief notes with which they are associated. The 
judgment will be trained to arrange them in their logi- 
cal order of sequence. When by many lessons this has 
been made a mental habit, the influence of the training 
will be felt upon all the other school lessons, as well as 
through life. There are several ways of accomplishing 
this step of reproducing the synopsis. The following is 
one of the most simple, expeditious and efficient. Skil- 
ful teachers will readily devise methods of their own. 

Fir it — Write the seven to ten or more items upon the 
blackboard in their proper order. This has already been 
determined by the pupil. Place its proper number be- 
fore each item. 

Second — Tell the pupils to look carefully at the items 
and try to remember them, and that you will presently 
require them to be written in the same way upon the 
slates and from memory. 

Third — Cover the synopsis with a newspaper or the 
convenient screen, and at a given signal let the pupils 
try to reproduce it upon their slates. 

Fourth — Call upon one to read what he has written, 
and let the rest of the class, without looking upon their 
slates, tell what he has omitted or what error he has 
made. Then give all a brief opportunity to correct and 
complete. Have the slates cleaned, and try once or 
twice more, if necessary, until a reasonably correct re- 



OBJECT LESSONS. 



313 



suit is obtained. Clean the' synopsis from the black- 
board. 

Fifth — The final step is obvious. It is that for which 
all that precedes has been the preparation. Let a suffi- 
cient number of pupils be called upon one after another 
to make a connected oral statement of such facts and 
ideas as each can properly recall, glancing from time to 
time, as he may find it necessary, at the synopsis upon 
his slate. 

Specimen Object Lesson. 
The Bear — Use Pictures. 

Special points to be developed. 

Parts. — Broad head; strong, clumsy body, covered 
with long coarse hair; stout thick legs; short tail; large, 
slightly pointed ears; small, bright eyes; front teeth in 
both jaws; canine teeth (two in each jaw), long, strong, 
and slightly curved backwards; molars broad and sur- 
mounted with tubercles; live toes on each foot, each 
having a long, stout curved claw or nail, fitted for dig- 
ging or climbing (not retractile). Sole of foot naked; 
simple stomach. 

Habits. 

Eats animal and vegetable food; walks on his flat feet 
(hence called plantigrade); climbs trees, nocturnal; 
stands readily on hind feci; uses fore feet for defence 

by striking or hugging. 

Uses. 

Flesh, leather, fur, curiosity. 

Dwell on adaptation of parts to habits and uses. 



3i4 



NATURAL SCIENCE. 



Miscellaneous and Popular. 

Cunning, unsocial; spends the winter in caves or in 
hollow trees, almost without food; dangerous and for- 
midable; sometimes called Bruin. (Why?) 

A few lessons should be given with the use of pictures, 
upon the lion, tiger, wolf, fox, raccoon. The cat, dog and 
bear being the types of the families to which they respect- 
ively belong, the matter furnished above will answer in 
all essential particulars for classifying the other animals. 

Give lessons on likenesses and differences; from the 
former get the idea and term carniverous, and from the 



latter the following: 



Carniverous Animals. ■{ 



f Cat family. 
I Dog " 
Bear " 
X " 



I 



Note. — The other families of this order are not given, 
because to attempt so much would defeat the object of 
the lessons. 

Models for identifying or describing: 

Oral. 
The lion is a wild, ferocious, toe-walking animal that 
belongs to the cat family of carniverous animals. 

Written. 

Wild. 

" Digitigrade, 
Claws retractile. 



Carnivorous 
Animals. 



,i 



Cat family. 



Front teeth in both jaws. "] 
•{ Canine, long, hooked, fit- | 



ted for tearing. 
Molars, uneven, sharp, 
fitted for cutting. 
k Simple stomach. 



► Carniverous. 



OBJECT LESSONS. 



315 



After each animal studied has been identified accord- 
ing to plans given, and a general talk had upon the 
whole order, a composition should be writted upon the 
subject, Carnivorous Animals. 

Several weeks may be spent profitably upon a com- 
parison of Herbivorous and Carnivorous animals. 
The following points are suggested: 

Kinds of teeth. Kinds of food. 

Kinds of stomachs. Nature of food. 



Shape and comparative size 
of trunks, especially the 
abdominal region. 

Acuteness of senses. 

Pliability of osseous 
structure. 

Freedom of motion of ) 
the limbs. j" 

Kinds of feet. 



Muscular power, (Rela-^j 
live.) I 

Limb- as weapons of 
offence or defence. 



i 



Quantity of food. 

Manner of obtaining 
food. 

Manner of obtaining 
food. 

j Manner of obtaining 
( food. 

( General habits, man- 
■< ner of obtaining 
/ food. 



i 



Obstacles to be over- 
come in obtaining 
food. 



The animal in each or- 
der most remote from 
1 be type 

(Hog, bear.) J 



> 



Food (both kinds.) 



The work indicated by this paper will require more 
time than tliat of the preceding papers. 



316 natural science. 

Experiments with Apparatus. 

I. Directions. 

1. Let the pupils describe the apparatus. 

2. Let the pupils perform the experiments. 

3. Let the pupils announce the experiments. 

4. Use simple objects and illustrations. 

5. Proceed by rudimentary facts. 

6. Proceed by individual cases to deduce laws. 

7. Let the principles be developed by the pupils. 

8. Let the pupils perceive that we arrive at results by 
three different ways: 1st, by observation; 2d, by experi- 
ment; 3d, by effects. 

II. Cautions. 

1. Speak slowly. 

2. Repeat carefully. 

2. LTse simple language. 

4. Write points on the board. 

5. Require pupils to copy. 

6. Keep close to the subject. 

7. Require pupils to answer in complete statements. 

8. Repeat experiments and illustrations. 

9. Reproduce each lesson carefully. 

10. Never use a term that has not been fully devel- 
oped. 

11. Guide the pupil's thoughts, but do not lead them. 

12. Arrange a definite plan. 

13. Work so as to secure and hold attention. 

14. Let your object be to guide pupils to see clearly 
and infer correctly. 



lessons on divisibility. 317 

General Formula. 

/, Objects should be presented, 

1. To the senses, or perception. 

2. To the reflective or reasoning powers. 

3. Their features should be thoroughly memorized. 

II. Ideas should be developed, 

1. By appealing to the senses. 

2. By comparison. 

3. By experiment. 

4. By reason. 

Lessons on Divisibility. 

The teacher should have on the table different arti- 
cles, as slips of wood, a lump of coal, pieces of glass, 
brick, stone, etc., glass jar containing water, cochineal, 
carmine, etc. 

First, let the pupils describe the articles, as " You 
hold in your hand a piece of pine wood ten inches in 
length, two inches in breadth and one-half an inch in 
thickness." See that they express the truth and use 
accurate language. 

" You held in your hand a lump of coal about as large 
as a hen's egg.^ 

" You have in your hand a piece of brick about four 
inches in length, four inches in breadth, and two inches 
in thickness." 

"You hold in your hand a glass jar containing one 
quart of clear water," etc., etc. 

The teacher may now place in the hands of the pupil 
a small slip of wood and tell him to do something with 
it. The pupil will cither break, cut or split it. The 



318 NATURAL SCIENCE. 

teacher will ask him to observe what he has done with 
it. The pupil will answer, "I have broken it." The 
teacher will so question the pupils as to draw out an 
answer similar to the following. " The wood may be 
separated into parts." 

Again the teacher will request one of the pupils to 
take the hammer and do something with the coal. The 
pupil will break it, and he perceives that the coal may 
be broken into pieces. 

The teacher will so question the pupil as to draw out 
the following answer: " Coal may be separated into 
parts." So proceed with the brick, glass, stone, iron, 
etc., and lastly take the glass jar and put in it a few 
grains of cochineal, carmine or indigo, and let the pupils 
notice the effects. They will say that the cochineal is 
coloring the \v T ater; let them see that the cochineal is 
separated into thousands of parts; lead them to say that 
cochineal " may be separated into parts." The teacher 
should write all the facts on the board, and require the 
pupils to spell the words. See that the children begin 
every statement with a capital letter and end it with a 
period. 

The lesson thus far developed will appear on the 
board in the following form : 

1. Wood may be separated into parts. 

2. Coal may be separated into parts. 

3. Glass may be separated into parts. 
5. Brick may be separated into parts. 

5. Iron may be separated into parts. 

6. Cochineal may be separated into parts. 

Pupils should be required to copy the above neatly, 
and reproduce it. They should be lead to perceive that 



LESSONS ON DIVISIBILITY. ^19 

all objects may be separated into parts. At this stage 
ask them to give a general name to all things that they 
can perceive. They will give the names: things, 
objects, articles, substance, matter, — perhaps not the 
latter; if they do not give the word matter the teacher 
should give it. Tell the pupils that "matter" is the 
team yon wish them to use. Now lead them to per- 
ceive that that " Matter may be separated into parts." 
Now tell them that this properly is called by a certain 
term, Divisibility, and lead them to develop the definition 
from the knowledge already possessed. For example, 
That property of matter, which allows it to be separated 
into parts is Divisibility. 

The lesson will now appear on the board in the follow- 
ng form : 

1. Wood may be separated into parts. 

2. Coal may be separated into parts. 

3. Glass may be separated into parts. 

4. Brick may be separated into parts. 

5. Iron may be separated into parts. 

6. Cochineal may be separated into parts. 

7. Musk may be separated into parts. 

General Law — All matter may be separated into parts. 

Definition— Divisibility is that property of matter which 
allows it to be separated into parts. 

The pupils should memorize the general Law and Defi- 
nition. The teacher may give extended information in 
relation to divisibility, speaking of a grain of musk, of 
the small portions it throws off, and of various miner- 
als. 



F 



ECITATIONS 



INTRODUCTOUY. 



As it is considered more important to digest what is 
learned than merely to acquire it, the manner of con- 
ducting a recitation becomes of the highest importance. 
It is to be expected that the pupils carry away with 
them the habits of mind that the class-training engen- 
ders. The ability of the teacher to make each recita- 
tion a model of the best method of investigating a sub- 
ject and of expressing the results, is the highest recom- 
mendation for the position he holds. 

Discipline is only a means, whereas the recitation is an 
end. A failure here is a failure altogether. It has defi- 
nite and rational aims to be carefully sought after and 
earnestly pursued. It is the most delicate part of all 
the school work. Here the teacher may exhibit skill, 
tact, and individuality; the inventive powers are to be 
taxed to their utmost, in order to bring about the 
desired results. 

Main Object of the Recitation. 

The main object is to develop the powers of the pupils, 
and this development will be attained in proportion to 
the ability, capacity, and ingenuity of the teacher. 



MKIlIOhS IN RECITATION. 32] 

The conditions of success in school work are as fixed 
as the axioms of mathematics. Intense interest, activity, 
self-reliance, well-directed effort — these arethe essential 
features of all efficient methods. Any method of con- 
ducting recitations that embraces these is a good one. 
Different teachers do not always succeed best with the 
same method. 

Adaptation and variety are cardinal principles in edu- 
cation. The safe rule is : Employ the method which will 
best enable you to effect the desired results. 

How to Conduct a Recitation. 
/. Essentials. 

1. A brief reproduction of the preceding lesson. 

2. A brief review of the preceding lesson. 

3. Rehearsal and critical examination of the daily 
Lesson. 

■I. Recapitulation of the daily lesson. 

5. Adequate preparation for the advanced lesson. 

//. Objects of the Recitation. 

1. The development of the faculties. 

2. The acquisition of knowledge. 

3. Its application to the use of life. 

III. Ends of (he Recitation. 

1. To develop individuality. 

2. To encourage originality. 

3. To cultivate self-reliance and self-possession. 

4. To cultivate sentiments of justice, kindness, for- 
bearance and courtesy. 

5. To nurture the development and the growth of the 



322 RECITATIONS. 

pupils, physically, intellectually and morally, and to pre- 
pare them for life's service. 

IV. Hints as to Conducting a Recitation. 

1. Teach " one thing at a time, and that well." 

2. Fix and hold the attention. 

3. Develop the power of close observation. 

4. Cultivate exact, concise and ready expression. 

5. Aim to increase the attainments of the class. 

6. Determine the pupil's habits and methods of study, 
and correct whatever is faulty either in manner or mat- 
ter. 

7. Ascertain the extent of preparation on the part of 
the pupiL 

8. Encourage. This is important to prevent apostasy 
— " backsliding." 

9. Give preliminary drill on subsequent lessons show- 
ing what is to be done and how it is to be done. This 
needs special attention. 

10. Hear reports on subjects assigned at previous 
recitations. 

11. Require pupils to answer in full and complete 
propositions. 

12. No pupil should speak until recognized by the 
teacher — the chairman of the meeting. 

13. The pupil should rise when called upon to recite. 

14. The teacher is not expected to recite, nor to repeat 
the pupil's answers. 

15. System, neatness and accuracy should character- 
ize all work. 

16. Criticism, given in the spirit of kindness, should 
be indulged at every recitation. 



ENDS TO BE ATTAINED. 323 

17. The recitation should cease when there is any 
confusion in the room. 

18. Aim to reach general principles. 

19. Remember that in primary work the "how" 
always precedes the " why." 

20. Master subjects rather than pages. 

21. Remember that mind-training is more important 
than mere knowledge. 

22. Avoid wandering; keep the object of the lesson 
before you. 

23. Avoid leaning in slavish dependence upon the text- 
book. 

24. Use judgment in the assignment of lessons. 

25. Propound lessons promiscuously. 

26. State the question — then call upon the pupil. 

27. When the pupil is called upon to recite, permit no 
interruptions, as speaking without permission, holding 
up hands, etc. 

28. Cultivate honesty in every recitation. 

29. Never " show off " pet classes or pet pupils. 

30. Do not talk too much about order. 

31. Cultivate language in the pupils; let every exer- 
cise bear upon the correct use of language. 

32. Close recitation promptly. 

33. Dismiss the class in order. 

34. Be cheerful, aetive and energetic. 

35. Thoroughly master your subjects. 

36. " Make haste slowly." 

37. Do not yourself remove difficulties, but teach 
pupils to overcome, to master them; in all instruction 
"never remove a difficulty which the pupil has the 
power to remove." 



324 RECITATIONS. 

38. Allow no question foreign to the recitation to be 
asked. 

39. Allow no hesitation during recitation. 

40. Give entire time and attention to the recitation. 

41. Require expertness in mechanical operations. 

42. Comprehend the difference between memory of 
words, and knowledge. 

43. Comprehend the difference between " hearing a 
recitation," and teaching. 

44. The skilful teacher will always prepare his class 
for any difficulty which may meet them in the advance 
lesson. He may explain the difficulty orally; he may 
solve an example, not in the book, which shall meet the 
difficulty; he may give the class a preliminary drill on 
the rule, or on a series of more difficult examples under 
any rule, or in miscellaneous examples under a number 
of rules. Such preparation, judiciously given, is calcu- 
lated to keep up the ambition of all the class, by remov- 
ing all excuses for laziness and discouragement. 

45. Remember that true education is the forming for 
life of correct habits of thinking , feeling and doing. 

V. Requisites for the Recitation. 

1. An energetic, intelligent teacher. 

2. Comfortable recitation seats. 

3. An abundance of blackboard. 

4. Apparatus, — such as globes, charts, maps, numeri- 
cal frame, measures, etc. 

5. Reference books. 

6. Call bell. 

7. Proper ventilation. 

8. Equal temperature. 



TEACHERS PREPARATION. 325 

VI. Preparation by the Teacher. 

1. A knowledge of mental and moral philosophy. 

2. General preparation, as special as possible. 

3. A programme for each day's work. 

4. Knowledge how to "use" books, but not abuse 
them. 

Reproductions. 

No permanent results can be attained in teaching 
without thorough, careful and repeated reproduction of 
lessons. 

After a lesson has been given and recited by the 
pupils in the subsequent recitation, they should be re- 
quired to restate what they learned in the preceding 
lesson, using good language and distinct and definite 
propositions. No questions should be asked by the 
teacher — and if the work has been done as it should be 
in the preceding exercise, there will be no need of any. 

In primary classes require oral reproduction; in inter- 
mediate and senior classes, written reproduction. 

Reviews. 

In the review the teacher asks questions of the pupils 
direct and general; pupils are required to construct 
tabulations. It is well to let the pupils ask questions of 
each other — this will inspire the pupils with a desire for 
study, and make them ready, prompt and self-reliant. 

The teacher should institute weekly reviews, both oral 
and written. 

Rehearsal. 
This is perhaps the most delicate part of the recita- 



326 RECITATIONS. 

tion. So to conduct it that pupils may pass a thorough 
examination requires skill, judgment and experience. 

The teacher is not expected to render assistance in 
this division of the recitation; the pupils must do the 
work, and give clear proof of their comprehension of the 
lesson. If they cannot do it, the teacher is in fault, and 
not the pupils. 

During this part of the recitation, the teacher should 
not take the time "to recite;" it is the pupils' time. 
He is a very poor teacher who will do the work that 
should be clone by the pupil. 

Recapitulation. 
Before the class is excused, let them give the leading, 
salient points of the lesson — a summary — a digest of 
the whole. 

Give Preliminary Drill upon Subsequent Lessons. 

A great deal of time is lost in the school, because 
pupils do not know what to do or how to do it. In all 
primary classes oral instruction should precede pure 
recitation. In fact, in all classes, where it is necessary, 
oral instruction should be given. 

I would not be understood to say that the teacher 
must tell the child all he is to learn; he should use the 
rational oral method, and not the old, antiquated text- 
book method. 

Objects of the Recitation. 
The main object of an education is to teach a child 
self-control — physical, intellectual and moral. This can 
be done only through a harmonious development of all 
his powers. 



OBJECT OF RECITATION. 327 

Pupils should be so taught in school that they may- 
have a desire to pursue other studies, and may be able 
to acquire knowledge by observation, investigation and 
study. The knowledge imparted should be applied, as 
far as may be, to practice. 

General Remarks. 

In recitations, the expression of the thoughts wdiich 
the pupil has acquired by study, should be embodied in 
his own language. 

If the lesson contains captions, mathematical defini- 
tions, principles or tables, or fixed rules, they should be 
accurately recited in the words of the author. The mind 
should be the depository of thoughts and not of mere 
words and signs. 

In the class-recitation the pupil should be required 
to stand erect while reciting. This will give him confi- 
dence and self-reliance. 

It should not be known beforehand what order will 
be pursued in conducting the recitation. If called on 
consecutively, some will be inattentive; if called on 
promiscously, the idle and inattentive will be called 
more frequently. 

Every teacher must see to it that each pupil is so 
classified as to be required to perform a full amount of 
mental labor. " Each mind must he taxed." It is the 
wise teacher who is able to adapt his treatment and 
instruction to the wants of each and all. 

Teachers are quite apt to call out the bright, intelli- 
gent pupils in the recitation; but let us remember that 
mere scholarship does not make the man; do not slight 
those who are dull, slow to understand. Our calcula- 



328 RECITATION. 

tions may be entirely subverted; in active life be wins 
who is more industrious and laborious tban bis fellow- 
men. 

Honor those who Labor. 

It is not the one wbo bears away the highest honors 
in the colleges, as a rule, that attains the highest posi- 
tion in life. The world has reversed the decision, and 
awarded the merit and honor to him who has paved 
his way to distinction and usefulness by toil and sweat 
and tears. 

Such are Nathanial Bowditch, the mathematician* 
Benjamin Franklin, the philosopher; George Peabody, 
the philanthrophirst, and Abraham Lincoln, the states- 
man. 

I would not intimate that scholarly ability is not desir- 
able, but this is not always the test. Long and merited 
toil is the price of merited honor. He who has gained 
the highest marks of professional life has risen step by 
step, not by genius, but by labor. 

Make the Recitation Interesting. 

Strive to make the recitation attractive and interest- 
ing. This requires thought and professional skill. The 
teacher should study each lesson before meeting the 
class, not merely to enable him to understand what he 
teaches, but to be able to so conduct the recitation that 
he will awaken and keep alive the interest of his pupils. 
The grand test of the teacher's ability, and the secret of 
his success is found in his power to inspire his pupils 
with earnestness and enthusiasm. To wake up mind, is 
his first and most important duty. A true teacher is 



NEED OF TEACHERS. 329 

alive and in earnest; his heart throbs with tenderness 
and emotion; his blood flows freely through his veins, 
and imparts cheerfulness and vigor to his being. Enthu- 
siasm speaks out in his voice, glows in his countenance 
and Hashes from his eye. We need in active service 
more of these live teachers; teachers that can bring order 
out of confusion, light out of darkness, and awake to 
activity the slumbering powers of the intellect. 

Our Country Needs Teachers. 

The country needs " teachers of schools," not "keep- 
ers of schools." The country needs men and women 
" to conduct rational recitations," not to hear classes. 
The country needs masters, and mastery is attained only 
through voluntary and persistent labor. Michael Angelo 
says: "Trifles make perfection, but perfection is no 
trifle." The teacher should be watchful, faithful and 
prayerful. Then, and not until then, will he attain suc- 
cess in teaching. 

Recitation. 

t m j. i i (1- Rote, memoriter. 
I. lext-oook, < y ,.' 7 
' ( 2. Rational. 



Methods 



, //. Oral, < o 



Rote. 



in \ ' ' i 2. Rational. 

Teaching. III. Socratic, 

TV. Topic or Subject, 

V. Discussion, 
VI. Lecture. 

The above methods are used in the schools, and many 
other ways not entitled to the name of method. 

The text book method is purely English, and by some 
it is a " much abused " method. 



330 RECITATIONS. 

When teachers simply require the pupils to commit a 
lesson to memory and recite it mechanically, this is an 
abuse of the method. The subject is one of unusual 
interest at the present time, for the reason that so much 
is said and written for and against the so-called "oral" 
and "text book" methods, respectively. While on the 
one hand the text book method is stigmatized as a dead 
mechanical memorizing of the words in the book and 
then a parrot-like repetition of the same to the teacher, 
who sits behind the desk and looks on the book to see 
that the lesson is given verbatim, on the other hand the 
oral system is accused of relieving the pupils from the 
necessity of study; of throwing all the work upon the 
teacher. 

Untrained Teachers. 

No doubt there are legions of unskilful, untrained ©r 
negligent teachers in the country. I incline to think 
that they far outnumber the skilful and pains-taking 
ones — and it is hardly fair to judge of the methods, 
when they misuse the position and the instruments 
placed in their bands so far as to make the text-book a 
procrustean bed and the recitation a benumbing process 
to the faculties of the child. The mere memorizing of 
the coutext is no index to the understanding of it. A 
school -mistress once said to a little girl: " How is it, 
my dear, that you do not understand this simple thing?" 
" I do not know, indeed," she answered, with a per- 
plexed look; "but I sometimes think I have so many 
things to learn that I have no time to understand." 

It is not best to condemn a method that has been in 
use for hundreds of years, because all cannot attain good 



ORAL METHOD. 331 

results. But systems should not have their merits ad- 
judged by their results in the hands of bunglers; they 
should be compared in their results as achieved at the 
hands of those who have mastered the methods. A sys- 
tem is not responsible for the failures of those who do 
not follow out its principles. 

Grand results have been attained with the text-book 
method, by adopting the rational method of recitation, 
— appealing to reason, to a proper understading of the con- 
text before memorizing. The latter is preferred by all 
rational teachers. 

Oral Method. 

This method is purely German, and like the text-book 
method has its friends and foes. In some schools the 
teachers lecture before the children, and require them to 
reproduce the exact language of the lecture. In this 
case it is as much a rote or memoriter exercise as the 
text -book method. 

In other schools, the teachers ask suggestive questions, 
— they excite the pupils' curiosity, awaken the mind and 
easily hold the attention. The pupils do the work, and 
infer the answers through their powers of perception. 
This is real education. This is the rational oral method. 

The advantage of class-recitation may be found in 
both oral and text-book methods, chiefly, I think, in the 
latter. We believe in a combination of the two meth- 
ods. We, in America, can neither use the text-book 
method, which is English, nor the oral method, which 
is German. We need to Americanize them, and our best 
teachers already are in the advance and working out 
grand results. 



332 recitations. 

Oral and Text-Book Methods Compared. 

The American method is the philosophical combi- 
nation of both, — uniting the merits and rejecting the 
faults. Oral methods predominate properly in Ameri- 
can primary schools ; text-book methods in secondary 
schools and colleges ; and we return again to oral 
methods, or lectures, in the professional schools. The 
true place for oral methods is in preparatory work. 
Oral instruction should lead to and prepare for the text- 
book. 

The best work in American schools is found in a judi- 
cious combination of both methods. Oral instruction 
alone, if carried through a course of instruction, even if 
teachers are prepared to give it, is not the best method. 
It should lead to a mastery of other thoughts than those 
on the printed page. The most effective teaching uses 
both the oral and text-book methods. If used properly, 
oral teaching will teach the pupils how to investigate. 
Oral instruction, in its results, is of the highest impor- 
tance to American citizenship. Young children have 
few ideas, for they have heard little, read little, and 
their observation has not been developed. 

Oral instruction takes a more permanent hold of the 
mind than memorizing from books. It affords the 
learner an opportunity to ask questions as the lesson 
proceeds, and gives the teacher the entire control of the 
youthful minds that lie fallow before him. It opens 
also a field for enthusiasm in teaching and learning, 
where everything with some teachers is mere drudgery. 
It would give life where there is nothing now but worn 
and worthless machinery in our public schools. 



THE SOCRATIC METHOD. 333 

Children are often made to commit to memory names 
and dates and rules, without a proper understanding of 
them. The text-book becomes the real instructor, and 
not the living man or woman who should impart instruct 
tion. 

We would not discard the text-books entirely, neither 
would we exclude them. 

The proper place for oral instruction is in the primary 
department ; and in other classes the oral instruction 
should be of such a character as to prepare the pupils for 
study, so that no time may be wasted. 

Pupils should be made to study their text-books ; 
learn short lessons ; be asked by the teachers not only 
the questions in the books, but others that will test their 
knowledge and awaken their interest. 

Some pupils learn readily from their text-books, and 
get along with a little explanation. Some are more dull 
and need the stimulus of recitation, of questions and 
answers, and of illustrations. 

The Socratic Method. 

By skilful questioning the pupil is led to discover the 
truth, and trained to think. Subjects are developed 
from the standpoint of the learner. The teacher stimu- 
lates and directs, but never crams. Pupils are encour- 
aged to present their own thoughts. If correct, the 
teacher deepens and widens their views by suggestive 
illustrations. If incorrect, the absurdity is shown by 
leading the pupils to discover the legitimate conse- 
quences. Thus the burden of thought and research is 
thrown upon the learner, who, at every step, feels the 
joy of discovery and victory, and the conscious pleasure 



334 RECITATIONS. 

of assisting the teacher. Such teaching results in de- 
velopment, growth and education. "The exercise of the 
child's own powers, stimulated and directed, but not 
superseded, by the teacher's interference, ends both in 
the acquisition of knowledge and in the invigoration of 
the powers for future acquisition." 

This old, old method is slowly but irresistibly tend- 
ing to become universal. Mere school keepers, rote teach- 
ers, quacks, shams and fossils will never adopt this plan 
of teaching; but as teachers become familiar with the 
science of teaching, they will necessarily use the Socra- 
tic method of giving instruction. It is the natural 
method. 

The Topical Method. 

In this method the pupils are trained to tell consecu- 
tively their own thoughts. 

The art of connected discourse is essential; hence by 
our best teachers the topical method is made the basis 
of the recitation. This should be required of every 
class in school, whenever the subject will admit of it. 
No other method can so easily secure the results to be 
accomplished. Pointed, searching questions are asked 
whenever necessary, and instruction is given in the 
Socratic method. At any moment any member of the 
class is liable to be called on to explain a difficulty, to 
answer a question, or to continue the topic. Thus life, 
vigor, undivided attention, and effective individual 
effort are secured and maintained throughout the reci- 
tation. 

Prompting, in all its forms, is inartistic and perni- 
cious. The aim is to train the pupils to habits of inde- 



THE DIS( TSSION METHOD. 335 

pendent expression, as well as independent thought. The 
exclusive use of the topic method is an extreme to be 
studiously avoided, as it excludes instruction and fails 
to elicit the intense interest and the earnest effort of 
every member of the class. It should have a limited 
use in the primary department, more extended in the 
intermediate and senior departments. In the primary 
classes, the terms may be developed individually, and 
written on the board, thus forming a complete tabula- 
tion and classification. 

The pupils should be required to review the terms 
written on the board, without any assistance from the 
teacher. 

In intermediate and senior classes, the pupils should 
be taught to tabulate and classify, and recite from the 
tabulation. 

The Discussion Method. 

Briefly and pointedly pupils present their arguments 
in favor of their respective positions. Criticisms are 
urged and answered. Every point is sharply contested. 
The reasons for and against are carefully weighed. 

Educationally the discussion method stands high. 
It is like the interest excited in debate; in these mental 
conflicts, the utmost power of the pupil is put forth. 

There is no better way to cultivate independence, 
self-assertion, liberality, and the habit of treating an 
opponent courteously and fairly. The discussion method 
supplements the Socratic and topic methods. It breaks 
up monotony, dissipates stupidnexs and insipidity. 

From the primary school to the university this method 
may be used with incalculable advantage; but in all cases 



336 RECITATIONS. 

it must be kept well under the control and direction of 
the teacher. 

Perhaps there is no method that will excite greater 
interest than this rational method. There is less exam- 
ining, less artificial training and more solid develop- 
ment The discussion method is pre-eminently the 
method to make thinking men and thinking women. 

The Lecture Method. 

Lecturing is another method of instruction which has 
its uses and abuses. A lecture by the teacher should 
never be substituted for a recitation by the class. Many 
teachers suppose that the measure of their ability as 
instructors is the power they have to explain and- illus- 
trate before their classes; and hence spend the most of 
the time assigned to recitation in the display of their 
own gifts of speech. But in the recitation room the 
good teacher has but little to say. His ability is tested 
more by his silence than by his loquacity; by his power 
to arouse and direct the activity of his pupils, more than 
by his own actions. In professional schools and in the 
advanced classes in colleges, the time for recitation is 
largely spent in this way. The lecturer outlines the 
subject, suggests the fields of research, indicates the 
line of thought, gives much information and stimulates 
the pupils to effort. If the student, by long continued 
effort makes the lecture his own, great will be the 
results. 

But nowhere in this country has the lecture method 
alone given entire satisfaction. It has been found 
necessary to institute oral and written examinations in 
order to make it effective. 



GENERAL REMARKS. 33*7 

The odtiVersational lecture gives results. The class 
by skilful questions are led into rich fields of thought. 
Topics are discussed by the teacher and the pupils. 
Questions are asked that produce thought; experiments 
are performed that elicit attention; pupils are led to 
draw inferences from what they perceive. This method 
was admirably used by the wise Socrates, Plato and 
Aristotle. From these great masters modern teachers 
may learn important lessons. 

The lecture method is utterly out of place in the 
primary classes. Wherever it has been used it proves a 
failure. 

Whenever a teacher gives a lecture to his pupils, he 
should require them to take notes, and recite after every 
formal lecture. It is well for the teacher to write on 
the board a tabulated classification, and require the 
pupils to copy. 

General Remarks. 

Whatever method the teacher may follow, one end 
should be attained; the best possible development of 
true manhood and womanhood. The inquiry may rise, what 
is the end of study, recitation and instruction ? 

Not the attainment of knowledge, but discipline — 
power. It is undoubtedly a fact that "secular educa- 
tion will make a good man better, but a bad man 
worse." 

Education, then, is not the storing of knowledge, but 

the development of power; and the law of development 

is thorough exercise. 

Any system of education, therefore, which weakens 
the motive, or removes (he necessity of laborious thinking 

is false in theory and ruinous in practice. 



333 RECITATIONS; 

There is only one way to acquire knowledge, and that 
way is through study — the voluntary and continual appli^ 
cation of the mind to a subject. 

Laws of Questioning. 

1. Questions should be clear and concise. 

2. Questions should be to the point. 

3. Questions should be adapted to the capacity. 
3. Questions should be logical. 

5. Questions should not be ambiguous. 

6. Avoid questions that give a choice between two 
answers. 

7. Avoid direct questions. 

8. Avoid set questions. 

9. Avoid general questions. 

10. Avoid questions that simply exercise the faculty of 
memory. 

Object of Questions. 

1. To find out what the pupils know. 

2. To ascertain what they need to know. 

3. To awaken curiosity. 

4. To arouse the mind to action. 

5. To illustrate; to explain, — when necessary. 

6. To impart knowledge not found in the text-book. 
V. To fix knowledge in the mind. 

8. To secure thoroughness. 

Cautions to be Observed in Questioning. 

1. Ask questions only once. 

2. Vary the questions. 

3. Begin the exercise with an easy question. 

4. Let your questions be connected. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES. 339 

5. When a question is asked do not suggest the first 
words of the answer. 

6. Enunciate every question with distinctness. 

7. Anticipate answers; arrange suggestive questions. 

8. Never neglect or ridicule an answer. 

9. Never tell a child what you could make that 
child tell you, 

10. Question the lesson into the minds of the pupils, 
and question it out again. 

11. Lead the pupil by a pleasant question to discover 
his own mistake, instead of directly charging him 
w T ith it. 

Maxims, or First Principles. 

I. The idea should go before the word which ex- 
presses it — or, in other words, a clear and distinct con- 
ception of an object should be impressed upon the 
mind, before the term which expresses it be committed 
to memory. 

II. In the process of instruction, nothing (if possible) 
should be assigned to the young merely as a task. 

III. Everything that is cheerful and exhilarating to 
the young should be associated with the business of edu- 
cation. 

IV. In the practice of teaching, the principle of emu- 
lation should be subordinate. 

V. Corporal punishment should be seldom or never 
inflicted — and when it is determined upon as the last 
resort, it should be inflicted with calmness and affec- 
tion. 

VI. Children should not be long confined in school — 
and never any longer than they arc actually employed 
in it. 



340 RECITATIONS. 

VII. Young people should always be treated as 
rational creatures, and their opinion occasionally solic- 
ited. 

VIII. Reproof should always be tendered with con- 
fidence and mildness. 

IX. One great object of education should be to fix 
the attention on the subjects we wish to explain and 
elucidate. 

Remarks. 

A principle of teaching is a law based upon the condi- 
tion of the minds of those to be taught. 

Very meagre will be the results of those teachers 
who instruct regardless of principles. There may be 
apparent advancement, but there will be no real pro- 
gress. 

I. Ideas Before Words. 
If the first principle were uniformly introduced into 
education it would overturn almost every system of in- 
struction which has hitherto prevailed. We may ask 
in the name of all that is wise, what is gained if we stock 
and overburden the memories of children with a medley 
of words to which no correct ideas are attached? A 
child may repeat hundreds of verses and yet be entirely 
ignorant of the meaning of almost every proposition. In 
the original formation of language, the objects of nature 
must first have been observed and known, before words 
or signs were fixed upon to distinguish them; the child- 
ren should be made to feel a desire for terms to express 
their ideas; and, in this case, the ideas and the words 
which express them will afterwards be inseparably con- 
nected. 



PLEASURE AND CHEERFULNESS. 341 

II. Learning Should be a Pleasure. 

Pains should be taken to carry out the intent of the 
second principle. The teacher cannot be too careful not 
to disgust at the first process of learning. Frequently 
revengeful feelings are excited by requiring children to 
remain after school hours and commit lines of poetry to 
memory, or perform some menial duty. 

Teachers are sometimes at fault for unlearned lessons 
on the part of pupils, because they have not told the 
children what to do or how to do it. If the young 
understand the nature and objects of their work, and 
the manner in which it should be prosecuted, they will 
find a pleasure in endeavoring to surmount every appar- 
ent difficulty. The work should be represented both as 
a duty and a pleasure. 

III. The School Should be Cheerful. 

It will give pleasure both to teacher and pupils to 
practise the import of the third principle. 

A smile from the teacher lightens the labor of the 
school, and lessens the burdens of the day. 

School rooms should be spacious, light and airy, — 
well ventilated, comfortably heated during winter and 
erected in delightful and commanding situations. The 
walls should be adorned with pictures, mottoes, vines 
and ornaments. 

The school-room should be made homelike as possible, 
as inviting as public halls. Teachers should frequently 
exhibit amusing and instructive experiments, and ask 
the children to assist them. The children should be 
gratified occasionally with excursions into interesting 
parts of the country, to view the works of nature and 



342 RECITATIONS. 

thus increase their love of the beautiful. Everything 
should be so conducted that all their scholastic exercises 
may be connected with delightful associations. 

IV. Avoid Appeals to Emulation. 

In the practice of the fourth principle, we believe 
that the principle of emulation should be made subord- 
inate. Many teachers have asserted that they could not 
conduct education without the aid of this principle. We 
believe that commendation for improvement needs to 
be practised much more frequently than reproof for 
deficiency. 

It is better to cultivate a love of knowledge for its own 
sake, that is for the plpasure it imparts and also for the 
sake of the increased good it will enable us to do for 
ourselves and for our fellow-beings. 

By appeals to parental authority and influence ; by 
efforts to form correct public sentiment in schools, so 
that it shall be unpopular to do wrong ; by cultivating 
in the pupils a sense of obligation to God, of his con- 
stant inspection, and of his interest in all their concerns, 
the children may be stimulated to do right. 

We believe that to encourage pupils to do right is 
the safest way ; not always the easiest, but the best. 

In an intellectual point of view emulation may be 
satisfactory to the few that excel ; satisfactory to the 
parents and guardians, who are led to form false esti- 
mates of their progress and acquirements by the places 
they occupy in their respective classes ; but it often 
produces an injurious effect on the moral temperament 
of the young and on their companions whom they excel. 

One grand end of instruction, which has been too 



avoid eoRroKAi. P UN iSHMENT\ 343 

much overlooked, is to cultivate and regulate the moral 
powers, — to produce love, affection, concord, humility, 
self-denial and other moral graces. But the principle of 
emulation has a tendency to produce jealousy, envy, 
hatred and other malignant passions. Besides it is only 
a very few in every class that can be stimulated to ex- 
ertion by this principle, and these few are generally of 
such a temperament as to require their ambitious dis- 
position to be restrained, rather than excited. A ma- 
terial prize is the least effectual mode of accomplishing 
the desired object ; it is founded on injustice, inasmuch 
as it heaps honors and emoluments on those to whom 
nature has already been most bountiful. 

In the curiosity of children, there is sufficient and 
natural stimulant of the appetite for knowledge, and we 
live in a world abounding in the means of useful and 
pleasurable gratifications. 

All that is required of teachers is to aid the faculties 
with affection and judgment. A certificate of diligence 
and good conduct seems to be all that is necessary to 
distinguish from the vicious, the idle, the slothful, those 
who have employed their time and talents in a proper 
manner. 

V. Corporal Punishment Should be Avoided. 

In this fifth principle is involved a problem still de- 
bated. Whether we have a healthier form of discipline 
in our American families and schools, can only be 
answered correctly by the wise fathers and mothers who 
have passed their four score years. We can but believe 
that corporal punishment, as it is generally administered, 
is revolting and degrading in its character, and the 



344 RECITATIONS. 

necessity of resorting to it generally indicates that there 
has been a want of proper training in the earlier stages 
of life. It is vain to imagine that children can be 
whipped into either learning or religion ; and if an en- 
lightened and judicious mode of tuition were univer- 
sally adopted there would seldom be any necessity for 
resorting to such a stimulus. But in the modes of 
teaching which used to prevail, corporal punishment 
was almost inevitable. 

Corporal punishment, rudeness, ridicule and reproach 
are altogether incompatible with a system of moral and 
intellectual instruction which is calculated to allure the 
minds of the young. 

Corporal punishment has generally a hardening effect 
on the minds both of young and old. 

A blacksmith brought up his son, to whom he was 
very severe, to his own trade. The urchin was never- 
theless an audacious dog. One day the old vulcan was 
attempting to harden a cold chisel which he had made 
of foreign steel, but could not succeed. "Horse-whip 
it, father," exclaimed the youth, "if that will not harden 
it, nothing will." 

VI. School Hours Should be Short. 

Little need be said on the sixth principle ; but all will 
agree that a school ought never to serve the purpose of 
a prison. If the primary classes are incapable of pre- 
paring the lessons themselves, they should be provided 
with slates and pencils and taught how to draw, to 
write and make figures. In mild weather they should 
have frequent recesses, and be called in when their 
lessons are to be explained. 



SECURE a it k mi on. H45 

VII. Pupils Should be Treated With Respect. 

The seventh principle, if fully practised, will aid ma- 
terially in school government. The reasons for the 
treatment they receive, and for the exercises prescribed, 
in so far as they are able to appreciate them, should 
be stated occasionally, and explained and illustrated. 

VIII. Reproof Shouid be Prompted by Kindness. 

The eighth principle is one of the most important 
ones. Plato said, " A teacher should never punish in 
anger." When reproofs are uttered in passion, and 
with looks of fury, they seldom or never produce any 
good effect, and not unfrequently excite a spirit of 
revenge against the reprover. 

IX. Secure Attention. 

The habit of attending to what one reads and what 
one hears is most important. 

In order to fix the attention, we must "continually 
think about it," study the subject, and get the powers 
under contral. Pupils should be taught to investigate, 
to study, to think, to notice every object within the reach 
of their vision, and to give an account of what they 
have seen or heard. 

All of these circumstances have a tendency to induce 
a habit of attention, without which there can be no 
solid improvement in any department of instruction. 
The teacher should not proceed with the exercises of 
the school without the undivided attention of every 
pupil. It is the imperative duty of the pupils to 
attend, provided the teacher is capable of instructing 
them. 



346 EEcTfATioss. 

We would commend to every teacher Pitch's little 
manual, " How to Secure and Retain the Attention of 
Pupils," price 15 cts. 

Laws op Teaching. 

1. Know thoroughly and familiarly whatever you 
attempt to teach. 

2. Gain and keep the attention of your pupils, and 
excite their interest in the subject. 

3. Use language which your pupils fully under- 
stand, and explain clearly every new word required. 

4. Begin with what is already known, and proceed to 
the unknown by easy and natural steps. 

5. Excite the self-activity of the pupils, and lead them 
to discover the truth for themselves. 

6. Require pupils to re-state fully and correctly in 
their own language, and with their own illustrations, 
the truth taught them. 

7. Review, review, review — carefully, thoroughly and 
repeatedly. 

Note. — These laws underlie and control all success- 
ful teaching. Nothing need be added to them; nothing 
can be safely taken away. 

Peinciples of Teaching. 

1. Teach objects before names. 

2. Teach ideas before words. 

3. Teach thoughts before sentences. 

4. Knowledge before definitions. 

5. Proceed from the known to the unknown. 

6. Proceed from the abstract to the concrete. 

7. Proceed from the simple to the complex. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 347 

8. Proceed from the particular to the general. 

9. Proceed from rudiments to principles. 

Suggestions to Teachers. 

1. Show the necessity of a subject before you begin 
to teach it. 

2. Require one subject to be understood, before tak- 
ing up another. 

3. Require everything that is taught to be reproduced 
by the pupils. 

4. Always take up subjects in their logical order. 

5. That which is attempted should be thoroughly 
mastered. 

6. Remember that all the powers are developed by 
being judiciously and vigorously exercised. 

1. Rember that knowledge is of little value unless it 
can be utilized. 

8. Remember that a lessen is not given until it has 
been received. 

Suggestion to Young Teachers. 

1. Make weekly or bi-weekly inspections of all books 
held by the pupils, holding each responsible for the 
right use of the same. This will prevent much mutila- 
te >n and destruction of books. 

2. In the class-room teachers should not confine the 
attention of the pupils exclusively to what is found in 
the hooks. " Honks are but helps, 1 ' or instruments; and 
while that which is contained in them should be judi- 
ciously used and thoroughly understood, yet, so far as 
time will permit, the teacher can, to advantage, intro- 
duce such matters as aye not only valuable in them- 



348 RECITATIONS. 

selves, but will tend to impress the subject of the 
lesson more firmly upon the mind. 

3. Be judicious and sparing in awarding credit or dis- 
credit marks; to be lavish, would render them cheap 
and comparatively valueless. 

4. Before reproving delinquents in recitation, first 
inquire whether or not they have studied, and, if so, 
what effort has been made. Some pupils may devote 
much time and labor to the acquirement of their lessons, 
and yet in the class room be weak in their recitation; 
and to denounce such would tend to discourage rather 
than stimulate. 

5. During a recitation, the attention of all should 
be engaged upon the lesson or subject under consi- 
deration. 

6. When a pupil applies for assistance on any ques- 
tion, do not accomplish the whole yourself, neither send 
him away entirely unaided; but after he has studied 
the subject faithfully, present to him one or two of the 
leading principles involved, and then leave him to 
develop the matter himself. Too much aid is sometimes 
worse than too'liitle. 

7. Before entering on their duties for the day, the 
teachers should be thoroughly conversant with the sub- 
ject of each lesson. A teacher, while conducting a reci- 
tation, should never he obliged to refer to the look or map for 
the purpose of ascertaining whether or not the pupil is 
correct in his answer. Besides displaying a weakness 
on the part of the teacher, there arises in the mind of 
the pupil the query — why should I study what my 
teacher does not know ? 

The teacher should be first well acquainted with the 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 349 

true answer to every question, and the correct pronun- 
ciation of every word in the several lessons. It will be 
seen that many advantages attend this plan; the chief 
of which are — much time is saved, the teacher instructs 
with more facility and success, and the pupil, observing 
the familiarity of the teacher with the several subjects, 
feels for him a greater respect. 

8. In hearing a lesson, give the pupil time to answer 
when he appears to have a correct idea, and merely 
hesitates to find words to express himself; but when it 
is evident that he is ignorant of the answer, waiting is 
but a loss of time. 

9. Be sure the pupils have gained ideas. Words, 
without ideas, clog the mind. 

10. A teacher taking charge of a new class, should at 
first advance it beyond the farthest point it had previ- 
ously attained in each study. In case the teacher finds 
the new class deficient in what has been passed over, he 
should not turn back until about two weeks have 
elapsed, when all necessary reviews may be made. 
When a class passes under the control of another 
teacher, a sudden retrograde movement would produce 
discontent in the class. At all times, the teacher should 
avoid allusion tending to disparage the course of his 
predecessor in the estimation of the class. 

11. The hearing of the class should not occupy more 
than one hour and a half daily, the remainder ot the 
day being devoted to actual teaching, when the les- 
sons for the following day may be explained by the 
teacher. In Grammar Schools, answering in concert 
should be little used. 

1~. Whenever practicable, teach by means of objects, 



350 RECITATIONS. 

or through the medium of the eye; in Geography, use 
globes and maps; in Astronomy, use orrery, globes and 
diagrams; in Spelling, frequently require the pupils to 
write the words or sentences given. 

13. If you would have no drones in your school, talk 
at each recitation to the dullest in your class, and use 
all your ingenuity in endeavoring to make him compre- 
hend. The others, then, will be sure to understand. 

14. Make each exercise as attractive as possible. 
Think out your methods beforehand, and illustrate 
freely. 

15. Cultivate self-control; never be led into confu- 
sion, and above all be in earnest. 

16. Be cheerful and smile often. A teacher with a 
long face casts a gloom over everything, and eventually 
chills young minds and closes young hearts. 

17. Use simple language when you explain lessons. 
Long words are thrown away in the school-room. 

18. Thoroughly test each pupil on the lesson, and do 
not be afraid of repetition. Review every day, or much 
will be lost. 

19. Do not try to teach too much; better teach a 
little and teach it well. 

20. Endeavor to make the pupils understand the 
meaning of what they study. Probe the matter to the 
bottom, and get at the real knowledge of your scholars. 

21. Cultivate the understanding, and do not appeal 
directly to the memory. 

22. Lay the foundation of knowledge firmly and well. 

23. Impart right principles and lead your pupils to a 
higher level, to a nobler range of thought. Endeavor to 
accomplish all that skill, intelligence and love can suggest. 



PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING. 35 1 

What now you do, you know not. 

But shall hereafter know, 
When the seed which you are sowing, 

To a whitened field shall grow. 

Tis a rich young soil you're tilling ; 

Then scatter the good seeds well ; 
Of the wealth of the golden harvest 

Eternity will tell. 

24. Teach your pupils to fight manfully in the warfare 
of good against evil, truth against error ; and above all, 
let the eternal principles of right and wrong govern 
your own life, and form a part of your own character. 
If you do this, you will " sow beside all waters, and 
eventually bring home your sheaves rejoicing." 

Principles of Teaching. 

1. Teach and train the eye to perceive correctly. 

2. Teach and train the ear to understand correctly. 

3. Teach and train the head to execute correctly. 

4. Teach and train the tongue to speak correctly. 

5. Teach and train the pupils to reproduce correctly. 

6. " Begin at the beginning." 

7. " Follow a natural order." 

8. " Classify knowledge." 

9. " Master principles." 



p 



isciplinary Exercises, 



INTRODUCTION. 



An experience of several years enables the author to 
assert that disciplinary and calisthenic exercises are best 
for maintaining the discipline of schools ; they invig- 
orate the body, improve the carriage and impart habits 
of punctuality, quickness, courtesy and obedience. 

The pupils almost invariably delight in them ; the 
exercises of the drill give them physical vigor and 
alacrity ; they learn insensibly and in a pleasurable way 
the need of instant and cheerful obedience. In this 
chapter we intend to explain the manner of conducting 
such exercises. 

We shall use the plainest and simplest terms, with 
less reference to the taste of the critic than to the con- 
venience and profit of the pupil. 

A large proportion of our teachers are young and in- 
experienced. They are earnest and energetic ; they 
are desirous of learning how to accomplish their duties 
lully and pleasantly ; and they are thankful for any in- 
struction in means and method. These exercises are 
offered as suitable to be joined to labor, or thrown around 
it in disguise. It is hoped that the instruction here given 



DISCIPLINARY COMMANDS. 



353 



will be sufficiently plain to enable every teacher to put 
it into practice. 

Much depends upon presenting the subject properly 
to the pupils. It will not do to force the matter upon 
them, nor even let it seem too much your own plan. 
Start it quietly, and tell them the use of the exercise, 
and they will urge you to drill them. The exercise is 
on* which all may take part, and they will soon be con- 
vinced of the merits of the plan. 

In preparation for your first, and for every drill, you 
must have thoroughly studied and practiced every 
movement which you are to teach. 

In demeanor be energetic, prompt and decided ; use 
no waste words, and err, if at all, on the side of severity, 
rather than of familiarity. 

Directions. 

Disciplinary Commands. 

A. The Word of Caution. B. The Word of Ex- 
ecution. 

1. Side by side, 

2. Face front, 

3. Not too close, 
4 Form on the right, 

5. Head to the right, 

6. Arms by the side, 
Fingers extended, 
No talking, &c. 

Face to the front, 
Chin close to neck, 

Chest thrown forward, 

Heels together, 
5. Eyes to the front, 
(^6. Body erect. 



I. Pupils .... Form the Line ! < 



II. Pupils Attention!-} 



7. 
8. 

1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 



354 DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 

III. Head j Eyes Right.— Front. 

Movement. ( Eyes Left. — Front. 

Movement. | 3 About _ _ _ Face ; 

f 1. Mark time . . March, 

V. Marching) 2. Forward . . . March, 
Movements. ] 3. File right . . March, 

1^4. File left . . . March. 

VI. Halt. 

Cautions 1. Require perfect silence. 

2. Do not talk too much. 

3. After giving a command, wait until it is 

executed. 

4. Explain each new position, before ex- 

ecution. 

5. Take up one movement at a time. 

6. Keep exact step. 

7. Keep steady time. 

8. Persevere. 

Pupils, Form the Line ! 

This means, make a line, side by side, facing one way; 
not too close to each other ; without crowding ; as you 
come up, do not crowd in at the centre of the line, but 
seek a place at the left ; (allow no talking, laughing, or 
even smiling.) Let your arms hang naturally at your 
sides, the fingers extended, palms of the hands turned in 
and the elbows touching each other lightly. Turn your 
head to the right, (not your shoulders,) and look along 
the line to see if you are not too far forward or behind. 
If forward, fall back ; if behind, come forward. 



WORDS OF COMMAND. 355 

The teacher should take pains with each one to see 
that he now obeys the directions in every one of these 
particulars. Give praise and encouragement when de- 
served. 

Pupils, Attention! 

At this command, you will think over every particu- 
lar: the position of the head, eyes, chest, arms and feet. 
You will remain in a perfect and quiet position until 
another command is given to you — " Dismissed ! " 

Eyes, Right ! 

The word of caution is, " Eyes." You are warned by 
that word that something is to be done with eyes. You 
are to do nothing until you have the word of execution, 
which is, " Right." As soon as you hear that you are to 
remain in this position until you hear the command, 
" Front ! " when you are to resume the first position. 
Now, we will give you a trial — "Eyes — Right!" 
"Eyes— Left!" 

Let there be a careful drill and a review of all the 
commands. Never forget that " Front " must follow 
each command. 

Right, Face ! 

This movement is performed by throwing the weight 
of the body on the left foot, making the heel of that 
foot the pivot upon which the body turns, the right foot 
being raised very slightly and brought around while 
turning to the right position. In turning, be careful not 
to sway the body or bend the knees. Do not move with 
a jerk. 

About, Face ! 

At the word " about," the position of the " rest " is 



356 DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 

assumed with the feet; at the word "face," turn on the 
left heel completely around, bringing the right foot to 
the side of the left; to make the movement tell, so that 
the executions of the order may be simultaneous, it will 
be well to require a stamp of the right foot as it is 
brought back, at the word " about." Do not go on to 
order " face " until " about " is well learned. This is a 
difficult motion. Be patient; spend much time on it. 

The "left, face ! " is done in the same way, except 
that the head is turned to the left. 

It would be well to arrange the pupils according to 
height, as this will add to their appearance. The 
" facings " are rather difficult, yet very important 
movements. 

Marching Movement. 
Mark Time, March ! 

At the word of caution, the weight of the body rests 
upon the right foot; the left foot is held ready to take a 
step. At the word " March," the left foot is thrown 
forward, as if to advance, and brought back to place: 
the right foot follows in the same way. 

There is no advancing, and care must be taken to 
bring the feet back into their tracks, or the line will be 
broken. 

Forward, March ! 

While marking time, give " Forward, March," taking 
care to pronounce the word " march " as the right foot 
strikes the floor. 

Marching, either from marking time, or from a halt, 
must be by " the left foot first." 



WORDS OP COMMAND. 357 

Halt ! 

The command, " Halt," stops them. The word " Halt " 
must always be given just as either foot strikes the 
ground. 

Rest ! 

"Rest " is performed by bringing the hands together, 
the left crossed over the right; arms at full length; left 
foot brought at right angles with the line; right foot 
thrown back, the bottom three inches in the rear of the 
heel of the left foot and parallel with the line; weight 
of the body on the right foot. 

If any one find himself getting behind, he must take 
longer steps. " Lengthen the pace but never lose the 
time." While marching by file, if you wish to turn to 
the right or left, command, " File — Right! " or, "File — 
Left! " 

This order is obeyed by the file-leader, and the rest 
follow him. The pupils must remember to preserve 
while marching the exact fronting distance, sixteen 
inches. 

In marching watch every movement and see that the 
pupils are in perfect order. When the command " Halt! " 
is given, require the pupils to stop instantly. 

Proper Space. 

In marching, let there be a space of about sixteen 
inches between the pupils. Insist that the body shall 
not be allowed to sway about while marking time; that 
the head shall be kept erect; that the eyes be directed 
to the front, striking the floor or ground twelve paces 
off; and that the arms and hands be held correctly; 



358 DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 

One Movement at a Time. 

Teach one movement a day, and in a few days your 
pupils will be familiar with all the movements. They 
should be drilled upon these movements before taking up 
Calisthenics. The discipline of the school will be very 
much easier if the teacher will introduce a system; two 
or three minutes' practice each day will insure success, 
and add to the happiness of the pupils. 

Calisthenics. 

A systematic drill of a few minutes each day will 
relieve the monotony of school-room routine. 

Children in the primary classes become very weary; 
" activity is a law of childhood — inactivity is the sym- 
bol of death, if not death itself." The pupils will take 
interest in the exercise and beneficial results will be 
attained. It will improve the pupils in their walk, giv- 
ing a lighter step, producing grace and symmetry in all 
their movements. It will give vigor, and tone up the 
pupils to increased effort in study. 



CALISTHENICS. 



359 



a. Chest, 

b. Arm-pit. 

c. Shoulder, 

d. Elbow, 

e. Arm, 
/. Head, 

I. Exercise, -j y. Head and Neck, 
h. Stepping, 
i. Slapping, 
j. Chopping, 
k. Mowing, 
I. Sawing, 
m. Trunk. 



II. Move- 
ments. 



r 



•: 



[' 1. Front, "1 Descending. 

a. Direction, <j J; {gjjjj 8, [ IIorizo » wl - 

^4. Bk.Obliquej Ascending. 

1. Right, 
f 1. Single. ■{ 2. Left, 

3. Alternate. 



b. Order, <j 



(^2. Double Simultaneous. 

I. Chest Exercise. 
Command — Chest Exercise — Position — Now ! 

Command — At the word of command the pupils should, 
in this and in the following exercises, take the positions 
promptly, with decision, and in perfect time. 

Position. — Stand erect, with heels together, and on the 
same line; toes turned equally out, and forming with 
each other an angle of 60°; knees straight, without stiff- 
ness; shoulders square aud falling equally ; arms hang- 
ing naturally by the side, with elbows near the body; 
hands firmly closed; head well set, and eyes directly to 
the front. 



360 



Disciplinary exercises. 



2d Movement. 



1. Right hand on chest. 

2. Left hand on chest. 

3. Right arm extended horizontally 
in front, four times. 

1st Movement. -{ 4. Left arm extended horizontally 

in front, four times. 

5. Alternate; right arm, return; left 
arm, return; two times. 

6. Simultaneous, both arms, four times. 

' 1. Right hand on chest. 

2. Left hand on chest. 

3. Right arm perpendicularly down- 
ward, four times. 

| 4. Left arm perpendicularly down- 
ward, four times. 

5. Alternate. 

6. Simultaneous. 

1. Right hand on chest. 

2. Left band on chest. 

3. Right arm extended horizontally to 
the right, four times. 

4. Left arm extended horizontally to 
the left, four times. 

5. Alternate. 
1^6. Simultaneous. 

II. Arm Pit Exercise. 



3d Movement. •{ 



Command — Arm-Pit Exercise — Position — Now ! 

r 1. Right hand at arm-pit. 

2. Left hand at arm-pit. 

3. Right arm perpendicularly down- 
ward, four times. 

4. Left arm perpendicularly down- 
ward, four times. 

5. Alternate. 

6. Simultaneous. 



1st Movement. < 



CALISTHENICS. 



361 



f 1. Hands in the same position as be- 
fore. 

_ , r ! 2. Ri<?ht arm, four times. 

2d Movement, i 3 jA{ armj fom . timeg> 

4. Alternate. 

5. Simultaneous. 

f 1. Hands in the same position as be- 
fore. 
| 2. Right arm perpendicularly upward, 
J four times. 

3d Movement. <j 3 j el - t arm perpendicularly upward, 

four times. 

4. Alternate. 

5. Simultaneous. 



III. Shouldee Exeecise. 

Command— Shoulder— Exercise— Position— No w ! 



{ 



1. Raise the right shoulder, 4 times. 

2. liaise the left shoulder, 4 times. 
1st Movement. { 3> Alternate . 

(^ 4. Simultaneous. 

" 1. Right shoulder, forward, once. 
2. Right shoulder, upward, once. 
2. Righl shoulder, backward, once. 

4. Right shoulder, downward, once. 

5. Repeat two times. 



2d Movement. 



I G. Left shoulder, forward, once. 
\ 7. Left shoulder, upward, once. 

8. Left shoulder, backward, once. 

9. Left shoulder, downward, once. 

10. Repeat, two time is. 
( 11. Alternate. 

^ 12. Simultaneous. 



362 



DISCIPLINARY EXEECISES. 



IV. Elbow Exercise. 



Command — Elbow Exercise — Position — Now ! 

' 1. Hands on hips, fingers front. 
2. Throw the right elbow back, four 
times. 

1st Movement. \ 3. Throw the left elbow back, four 

times. 

4. Alternate. 

5. Simultaneous. 



r 1. Right elbow, forward, once. 

2. Right elbow, backward, once. 

3. Repeat, three times. 

4. Left elbow, forward, once. 

5. Left elbow, backward, once. 

6. Repeat, three times. 

7. Alternate, four times. 



2d Movement. \ 



y 8. Simultaneous, four times. 



V. Arm Exercise. 



1st Movement. 



Command — Arm Exercise — Position — Now 



r 1. Hands together, in front. 

2. Left hand, retain position. 

3. Right hand thrown back, eight 

times; clap the hands. 

4. Right hand, retain position. 

5. Left hand thrown back, eight times; 

clap the hands. 

6. Alternate, clap the hands. 

^ 7. Simultaneous, clap the hands. 



CALISTHENICS. 



363 



VI. Hand and Finger Exercise. 



Command — Hand Exercise — Position — Now ! 



1st Movement. \ 



2d Movement. 



3d Movement. \ 



1. Stand erect, with hands at side, 
and fingers firmly closed. 

2. Right hand twist, as in boring with 
a gimlet, four times. 

3. Left hand, four times. 

4. Alternate, four times. 

5. Simultaneous, four times. 

1. Right hand extended perpendicu- 
larly upward, rotate four times. 

2. Left hand, four times. 

3. Alternate, four times. 

4. Simultaneous, four times. 

"1. Right arm extended perpendicu- 
larly upward, with fingers spread 
apart, and shut, four times. 

2. Left arm, four times. 

3. Alternate, four times. 
^ 4. Simultaneous, four times. 

VII. Arm Exercise. 

Command — Head and Neck Exercise — Position — Now ! 

r 1. Turn the head horizontally to the 
right so that the face will be on 

1st Movement. { , the shoulder four times 

) 2. 1 urn the head horizontally to the 

left, four times. 

[_ 3. Alternate. 

r 1. Bow the head to the front, four 
times. 
2d Movement. < 2. Head backward, four times. 

3. To the right, four times. 

4. To the left, four times. 



364 



DISCIPLINARY EXEECISES. 



3d Movement. 



1st Movement. 



' 1. To the front, once. 

J 2. To the right, once. 

J 3. To the back, once. 

^ 4. To the left, once. 

VIII. Aem Exercise. 
Command — Arm Exercise — Position — Now! 
( 1. Palms together. 

2. Arms extended, horizontal, front. 

3. Right arm, four times. 

4. Left arm, four times. 

5. Alternate. 
[ 6. Simultaneous. 
'1. Position. 

2. Swing right arm from the horizont- 
al front up to the perpendicular, 
four times. 

2d Movement. -{ 3. Swing left arm from the horizontal 

front up to the perpendicular, 
four times. 

4. Alternate. 

5. Simultaneous. 

fl. Position as in No. 1. 

| 2. Swing the right arm outward and 

backward, four times. 
3d Movement. •{ 3. Swing the left arm outward and 

backward, four times. 
| 4. Alternate. 
^ 5. Simultaneous. 

IX. Stepping Exercise. 

Command — Stepping Exercise — Position — Note ! 

{ 1. Place the hands about the waist, 

thumbs in front. 
| 2. Step obliquely to the right, front, 
1st Movement. \ four times. 

3. Step obliquely to the left, rear, 
four times. 

4. Alternate. 



CALISTHENICS. 



36i 



2d Movement. 



3d Movement. 



f 1. Same position as in No. 1. 

I 2. Step obliquely to the right, rear, 

J four times. 

; 3. Step obliquely to the left, rear, 

four times. 
|^4. Alternate. 

f 1. Same position as in No. 1. 
j 2. Step to the right, four times. 
I 3. Step to the left, four times. 
^4. Alternate. 



X. Slapping Exercise. 



1st Movement. 



Com m an d — Slapping Exercise — Position — Now! 

fl. Arms extended horizontally front. 
| 2. Palms together. 
3. Strike left hand with right, four 
times. 
j 4. Strike right hand with left, four 
times. 
5. Alternate. 
^6. Simultaneous. 

f 1. Arms perpendicular, 
j 2. Strike left hand with right, four 
times. 

3. Strike right hand with left, four 
times. 

4. Alternate. 

5. Simultaneous. 

r l. Arms placed behind. 
2. Strike left hand with right, four 
times. 

3d Movement. I 3. Strike right hand with left, four 

times. 

4. Alternate. 

5. Simultaneous. 



2d Movement. 



366 



DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 



XI. Chopping Exercise. 

Command — Chopping Exercise — Position — Now! 

{ 1. Hands raised above the head to the 
right, four times. 
1st Movement. \ 2. Hands raised above the head to the 

left, four times. 

^3. Alternate. 

f 1. Hands raised above the head to the 

left, four times. 
2d Movement. \ 2. Hands raised above the head to the 

right, four times. 
|^3. Alternate. 

XII. Moving Exercise. 

Command — Moving Exercise — Position — Now! 

1. Arms to the right. 

2. Move horizontally to the left, in 
front, four times. 

3. Move horizontally to the left, at 
the right, four times. 

4. Move horizontally to the left, be- 
hind, four times. 

5. Move horizontally to the left, at 
the left, four times. 

XIII. Sawing Exercise. 

Command — Sawing Exercise — Position — Now! 

( 1. Elbow above the line of the shoul- 
der. 
| 2. Down in front, four times. 
| 3. Turn to the right, down, four 

Movements. - <( 4 _ T J™™- the rear> dowll) foul . 

times. 
5. Turn to the left, down, four times. 
^ 6. To your place. 



CALISTHENICS. 367 

X I V. Trunk Exercise. 

Command — Trunk Exercise — Position — Now ! 

{ 1. Hand about the wrist, thumbs in 

front. 
| 2. Bend the body horizontally front, 

four times. 

Movements. - { 3 * Ben ? ^ e f hod l horizon tally to the 

lett, tour nines. 

| 4. Bend the body horizontally to the 

rear, four times. 

| 5. Bend the body horizontally to the 

[ right, four times. 

General Remarks and Explanations. 

These exercises are intended for those teachers who 
have learned no system. They are simple, and by tak- 
ing one exercise at a time the whole series may soon be 
put in practice. Much of the benefit derived from 
Calisthenics is from the alternation of rigid and relaxed 
muscles. There should be an accent to the motion, and 
that accent should occur on the outward movement ; 
hence the muscles should be firm in the outward move- 
ment, and relaxed in the return. 

The Position. 

The position the children are to assume should be ex- 
plained before the command is given. When the "ex- 
ercise " is called, all should take position instantly. The 
beauty of the exercise consists in regularity. 

On the word "Now !" the musician should begin in- 
stantly, and the pupils should begin at the same instant, 
following their leader. 



368 disciplinary exercises. 

Explain all the Movements. 

The teacher should take pains to explain all the 
movements before he requires the execution ; and then 
see that all understand them, else there will be no uni- 
formity in the movements. 

Direction of Movement. 

This order is tabulated under the head of " Calis- 
thenics," and it means the line of course in which we 
move. All movements made before are called "front j" 
those made directly on the right or left are called " ex- 
tended ;" those made between the " front " and " ex- 
tended " are called " oblique ;" and, lastly, those made 
back of the extended are called " back-oblique," or 
" backward." All motions made on a line with the 
shoulder are called " descending ;" all above a line with 
the shoulder are called " ascending." 

Order of Movement. 

This means the suggestive order in which the right or 
left hand, arm, etc., are used in the movements. 

Single movement is when the movements are made 
first with the right hand or arm; then with the left, each 
a certain number of times, generally four; second, alter- 
nate with the right and left a corresponding number of 
times; and third, a simultaneous movement of the 
right and left the same number of times. 

Double order is made with both hands simultaneously. 

Time. 

The best way to teach the time, is to count, at first. 
Count one on the outward movement; two on the return, 



< ai.istii i:\ics. 369 

and so on, till yon count eight. Commence all move- 
ments with the right hand, arm, etc. Count eight foi' 
the right hand, then eight for the left, eight on the 
alternate movement and eight on the simultaneous ac- 
tion. 

The Song Budget, 15 cts. ; The Song Chorus, 35 cts. ; 
and The Diadem of School Songs, 50 cts., contain a few 
interesting Calisthenic exercises set to music. 



p 



CHOOL U RGANIZATION. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



School organization is a system of arrangement de- 
signed to secure constant employment, efficient instruc- 
tion and moral control. It aims at providing the means 
of instructing and educating the greatest number in the 
most efficient manner, and by the most economical ex- 
penditure of time and money. 

Organization puts each child in its proper place; 
allots to each class proper work, — proper in kind and 
amount; secures to each subject the time that is justly 
its due; arranges the work, both as to place and to kind, 
so as to preserve a quiet room; and properly distributes 
the work, so that no interest of the school in any of its 
parts shall suffer. 

I know full well the anxiety with which the young 
and inexperienced teacher anticipates the opening of the 
first school. The first questions that arise in the mind 
are: What shall I do ? How shall I do it? When shall I 
do it ? 

To organize, govern and discipline a school success- 
fully, requires inborn qualities. It is very much easier 
for a general to command an army, than for a teacher 



HOW TO BEGIN. 371 

to govern a school; for a general has to consider only 
immediate results, besides being invested with absolute 
power, while the teacher has to consider chiefly results 
to be obtained in the future, and he is forbidden by con- 
sideration of his own and the pupils' good, to exercise 
other than qualified authority. 

Choice of a School. 

The young teacher should not select a difficult school 
at first. Too many teach for the pecuniary reward, and 
others do not consider whether or not they are adapted 
to particular schools. 

Contract. 

The contract should be in writing, and express defi- 
nitely the conditions. Both parties should have a copy. 
Like all other business, it should be done in a business- 
like manner. Printed forms for these contracts may be 
obtained of the publisher of this work at ten cents a 
pair. 

Preparation for thf; First Day's Work. 

This is all important. The seeds of failure are fre- 
quently sown the first hour. The teacher should have a 
plan in his mind: just what he will do ; how he will do it; 
and when he will do it. He should not try to accomplish 
too much the first day; must not be too anxious about 
courting the favor of pupils — good discipline cannot be 
established in a day; he should use words expressive of 
friendly feelings and good intentions; he should not let 
frowns cloud the brow, although all may not be, at the 
outset, just as one might wish; he should leave nothing 



372 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

to the impulse of the moment; he should be firm, watch- 
ful and uniform; and should endeavor to make the first 
impression pleasant. 

The First Exercises. 
Do not attempt to hear recitations the first morning; 
after opening the school with a general exercise, let 
them all join in singing some familiar piece; this will 
dispel embarrassment. The importance of singing in 
school as an aid to school government, can hardly be 
overestimated. The " Song Budget," at $1.50 a dozen, 
is certainly within the means of every school. 

Enrolling the Pupils. 

Write on the board the requirements, and pass slips of 
paper, asking all that can write to hand in the following, 
viz: 

1. The full name. 

2. The full name of parent or guardian. 

3. Residence. 

4. Age. 

Let some pupils pass aroiyid and take the names, etc., 
of those who cannot write. 

Classification. 

In the highest classes institute a written examination. 
This can be made a test exercise in spelling, penmanship, 
and the use of language. The questions need not be 
difficult; ten questions upon the different subjects will 
test the knowledge of the pupils as well as twenty. The 
pupils that cannot write should be examined orally, and 
record kept of the standing of each pupil. It is not best 
to make sudden and radical changes; better adopt the 



NIK DAILY PROGRAMME. 373 

classification of your predecessor, if you have not confi- 
dence in your own ability. 

Make all changes gradually and quietly and let the 

pupils see that it is for their interest and the good of the 
school. 

Forming Classes. 

After having carefully graded the pupils, then attempt 
a temp. nary classification. It will be impossible to 
adopt a permanent classification at first, and the pupils 
should so understand it. 

There should not be more than four grades in the 
public schools. The primer and the first reader should 
constitute the D grade; the second reader, the C grade; 
the third reader, the B grade; and the fourth reader, 
the A grade. The number of classes in each grade 
should not exceed four, and, by class classification, they 
need not exceed this number. 

Programme of Exercises. 

The teacher is now ready to draw up the plan of work, 
specifying the number of classes and the time of begin- 
ing, ending, and the length of each recitation. 

The programme should provide for study as well as 
for recitation. 

Advantages of a programme : — 

1. It lessens the labor of teaching. 

2. It makes the teaching more effective. 

3. It promotes good order. 

4. It cultivates systematic habits. 

5. It promotes the ambition of pupils. 

While it is well to follow the programme carefully, 



374 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

the organization and discipline must not be too mechani- 
cal, or pupils will tire of it. No change in classes 
should be made for visitors, unless by special request. 

Class Movements. 

Pupils should be seated according to classification, so 
far as practicable, and graded according to height, seat- 
ing the tallest pupils in the rear. The teacher should 
have the entire charge of seating the pupils. Teachers 
should change seat-mates when advisable. As a rule it 
is not best to place pupils of the same temperament 
together. Tbe class movements should be conducted 
with precision, and no disorder should be allowed in the 
room. In no instance should the school-room be used 
as a play-ground. 

Proper Care of the School-Room. 

The pupils should not be allowed to deface, destroy, 
or in any way injure the school property. They should 
be required to keep the school-room in perfect order, 
and have a place for their books and implements of 
work. 

Special Privileges. 

But very few special privileges should be granted to 

pupils, such as leaving seats, speaking to one another, 

asking questions of teaohers, making complaints to 

teachers, receiving help from the teacher, etc. In a 

thoroughly organized school the granting of these priv- 
leges takes but little, if any time. 



wanted! A SPIRIT of work. 3*75 

Keep up a Spirit of Work. 
Extract from the Report of Supt. William T. Harris, St. Louis. 

Listlessness in the school-room is traced to : 

1. Lack of proper ventilation. 

2. Lack of equal temperature. 

3. Too long recitations for the strength of the pupils. 

4. Injudicious and too frequent concert recitations. 

5. The practice of " keeping in " pupils at recess or 
after school for failure in lessons or misbehavior. 

6. Lack of definite analysis of the subject of the les- 
son by the teacher during recitation. 

7. Substitution of individual explanation on the part 
of the teacher for correction (in the class) of bad habits 
of study. 

On entering the room of a careless or inexperienced 
teacher, the visitor is struck by the lifeless atmosphere 
that seems to pervade both teacher and pupils. The 
pupils all turn their gaze upon him as he enters and 
stare abstractedly, forgetful of the presence of the 
teacher and of the purpose of their attendence at school. 
The teacher languidly, or with a slight flush of surprise 
and embarrassment, invites him to a seat. After a little, 
the pupils settle back into the condition prevailing 
before the entrance of the visitor. The pupils at their 
seats are variously employed: many are leaning over 
their desks, their faces full of ennui ; others are endeav- 
oring to relieve the tedium of the slow creeping hour 
by ingenious devices of their own — pin- traps, spit-balls, 
picture-books under the desks, writing notes to their fel- 
lows, making caricatures on their slates, scratching fur- 
niture, telegraphing on a small scale, etc., — some have 



376 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

books open before them, others not; the class that is 
"on the line" for recitations are leaning: against the 
blackboards behind them, or against the desks in front 
of them; some are paying attention to the lesson, others 
are busied with the pupils at their seats. The teacher 
is distracted and confused. 

Take the room as a whole, and the lack of the one 
spirit that should prevail in it is painful to witness. The 
almost audible sigh of the whole is: " Oh, that school 
were out ! " The visitor thinks of the Lotus-Eaters and 
of the "Land in which it seemed always afternoon; all 
round the coast the languid air did swoon, breathing 
like one that had a weary dream." 

The visitor who has come to inspect the school, looks 
carefully into the methods of instruction and discipline 
in order that he may discover the primary causes of 
this failure, and suggest its remedy. 

He notes: "This teacher has no force; she has no 
hold over these pupils; she does not make up her mind 
at the outset, that she will have this and not that; she 
commands incessantly, and does not wait to see whether 
any command is obeyed; she obviously has not prepared 
herself on the lesson before coming to school, for, see, 
she holds the text-book in her hand and is closely con- 
fined to the text while she asks questions; at obvious 
allusions to the subject of the previous lesson she does 
not pause to call it up, nor does she illustrate the diffi- 
cult portions of the lesson for to-day; while she is looking 
in the book for the next question, a pupil has answered 
the previous one inaccurately, or has omitted the essential 
point; she treats the important and unimportant ques- 
tions alike; no wonder the pupils are listless I " 



is von: S< HOOL i.ik R nns? 377 

But he sees that this phase is not the only one where- 
in the teacher acts like a novice; in the more general 
programme similar defects manifest themselves which 
he notes accordingly: 

The class is too large and too much time is taken to 
hear it; the lesson for the next day is too long, and no 
directions are given as to how to study it; all those who 
fail are kept in at recess or after school; some receive 
individual explanations, and consequently get in the 
habit of crowding around the teacher's desk, and of de- 
pending on his direct assistance. Added to this, the 
teacher hears milny parts of the lesson in concert, and 
the consequence is only those portions of the lessons are 
dwelt upan that are most mechanical, for only such can 
be recited in concert — discriminating and original 
answers cannot be given in concert — concert answers 
must 1>" something verbatim and short answers: " Yes, 
Sir." " No, Sir," "Atlantic Ocean," and the like. Com- 
plete answers are made by the smart pupils, while the 
dull ones follow the lead and join in towards the end of 
the answer. The bright pupils answer the whole: 
"Twenty-five thousand miles; " the less bright one says: 
"Five thousand miles;" and the dull one: "Thousand 
miles;" the dullest comes in at the word "Miles." These 
pupils have not the power or discipline of mind to concen- 
trate their attention for so long a recitation; they get fa- 
tigued before it is through, and list lessness is the result. 

Again: " The ventilation is not attended to, and the 
impure air causes incipient congestion of the brain, and 
a few of the delicate ones have headaches, while all 
feel that apathy and indifference which is its premoni- 
tory symptom." 



378 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

"Most important is the failure of the teacher; she 
does not practise a system of definite analysis of the lesson 
at recitation. She asks probing questions only seldom; 
the pupil is not made to seize the subject and analyze it 
till he thoroughly understands it. The consequence is, 
he does not know how to study the next lesson, nor 
when he has learned it, and therefore does not study at 
his seat, having no definite sense of his deficiency and 
of his ability to overcome it." 

These causes of failure when generalized may be 
traced to one prevailing defect on the part of the 
teacher. And this may be described thus: The teacher 
fails because she does not pay careful attention to the 
power for work which her pupils actually possess, and 
so lay out tasks and secure their accomplishment as to in- 
crease constantly this power for work. Previous prepa- 
ration on the part of the teacher is indispensable for 
this result. Everything should be digested by the 
teacher before entering the school-room; she should 
re-enforce the moments by the hours, and thus be able at all 
times to bring to bear the entire weight of her charac- 
ter upon the pupil. The practice of keeping the pupil 
in at recess for failure in lessons is very baneful in its 
effects. The cause of the failure is probably owing to 
inability to concentrate his mind, and here the cure pre- 
scribed is calculated to heighten the disease. The 
teacher should get the lesson into such shape that the 
pupil can master it by a general assault, and he should 
not be allowed — at home or in school — to make a dissi- 
pated, scattering attack on it. 



PROGRAMME FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 379 

PROGRAMME FOR AN UNGRADED SCHOOL. 



D. Class — 1st Term. 

Reading — First Reader, half through; give special atten- 
tion to tone. 

Numbers — (a) Learn figures. 

(b) Add and subtract by ones with tables. 

(c) Count, notate and numerate to 50. 
Spelling — All the new words in the reader. 

Writing — The words learned in reading, and writing 
the pupil's own name, with correct use of 
capitals. 

D. Class — 2d Term. 
Reading — Last half of Reader. 

Numbers — (a) Addition and Subtraction and Multipli- 
cation by l's and 2's; min. and prod, not 
to exceed 24. 
(b) Roman Numerals found in reader. 
Spelling — Same as first term. 
Writing — Words learned with proper use of capitals. 

Place — (a) The cardinal and semi-cardinal points and 

applications. 
(b) Lessons preparatory to giving the boundary 

of the room, such as ceiling, corners, sides, 

&c. 
Color — Distinguishing and naming color. 

Size — General idea of size; large and small; larger and 
smaller; largest and smallest. Also, long 
and short, with the three degrees. Also, 
height, with the degrees, 



380 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

C. Class — 1st Term. 

Reading — Half Second Reader; special attention given 
to pronunciation and tone. 

Numbers — (a) Addition and Subtraction and Multipli- 
cation with tables of l's, 2's and 3's; 
sum or min. not to exceed 36. 

(b) Addition of columns of tens and units; 

no figures greater than three, and the 
sum of no column greater than 36. 

(c) Roman Numerals witm reading. 

Spelling — All words used in reading by sound and letter. 

Writing — Instruction from board. 

Place — (a) Draw map of streets or roads of Village or 
District, and locate buildings. 
(b) Name town and district officers. 

C. Class — Second Term. 

Reading — Finish Reader. 

(a) Give instruction in vowels. 

Numbers — (a) Addition and subtraction of l's, 2's, 3's, 
4's, 5's; sum or min. not to exceed 60. 

(b) Multiplication and division; the sum, 

multiple and quotient not to exceed 12. 

(c) Notation and numeration to 1,000,000. 

Writing — Copy on the board. 
Spelling — Words in reading lesson. 

Place — (a) Teacher shows map of county. 

(b) Children name, locate and bound towns. 

(c) Tell direction each is from the other. 

(d) Name towns through which railroads pass. 



PROGRAMME FOR I'NtiRAliKU SCHOOLS. 381 

(e) Name add Locate villages of each. 

(/) Name and locate creeks and rivers. 
(//) Give population of towns and county. 
(A) Explain and name county seat. 

(f) Name town officers and duties of each. 

( j ) Draw a ma}) of county and give sq. miles. 
(k) Review. 

B. Class — 1st Term. 

Reading — Half of Third Reader. Particular attention 
to pronunciation and modulation. 

Numbers — Finish division — written and intellectual, 
and review. Combination in notation and 
numeration to 1,000,000. 

Spelling — Words in Third Reader — abbreviations found 
in reading or spelling. 

Penmanship — Instruction from board and No. 4 Writ- 
ing-Book. 

Grammar — Primary, first half. 

Geography — One-half Primary, with drawing maps of 
same. 

B. Class — 2d Term. 

leading — Finish Third Reader. Particular attention 

to pronunciation, modulation and inflection. 
Numbers — Decimal and common fractions ; review. 
Spelling — Words in Reader and Geography. 
Penmanship — Class exercises and No. 5. 
Grammar — Finish Primary. 
Geography — Primary with map drawings for same, 



382 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

A. Class — First Term. 

Reading — Fourth Reader ; attention to thought, ex- 
pression and pronunciation, to precede the 
exercise. 

Arithmetic — Denominate numbers and simple and com- 
pound interest. 
Spelling — In word-book, words written. 
Penmanship — Book 6 ; class instruction from board. 
Grammar — Orthography and etymology. 
Geography — With map drawing. 

A. Class — 2d Term. 

Reading — Fourth Reader ; attention as before. 

Arithmetic — Percentage, insurance, commission, profit 
and loss, taxes, discount, government secur- 
ities and proportion. 

Spelling — Word-book, words written. 

Penmanship — Book 7, and class exercise. 

Grammar — Syntax and review. 

Geography. 

School Exercises in History — Teacher writes a fact upon 
the board, pupils talk about it and relate in- 
cidents which they have gathered regarding 
it. Review each day. 

Civil Government — The same. 



programme for ungraded schools. 383 

Programme of Exercises for an Ungraded School. 



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384 school organization. 

Programme of Exercises for a County 



MORNING SESSION. 


Monday. 


Tuesday. 


9 00 to 9 02— Roll Call. 
9 02 to 9 10— Dev. Exer. 
9 10 to 9 15-Singing. 
9 15 to 9 50— Instruct'n. 
9 50 to 9 55— Rest. 
9 55 to 10 30— Instruct'n. 
10 30 to 10 40— Rest. 

10 40 to 11 15— Instruct'n. 

11 15 toll 20— Rest. 

11 20 to 11 55— Instruct'n. 
11 55 to 12 00 -Singing. 


Roll Call. 

Devotional Exer. 

Singing. 

School Organiz'n. 

Rest. 

Civil Government. 

Rest. 

Phonic Analysis. 

Rest. 

Language. 

Singing. 


Roll Call. 

Devotional Exer. 

Singing. 

School Managem't 

Rest. 

Language. 

Rest. 

Arithmetic. 

Rest. 

Civil Government. 

Singing. 


AFTERNOON SESSION. 


Monday. 


Tuesday. 


2 00 to 2 02— Roll Call. 
2 02 to 2 10- Singing. 
2 10 to 2 45 — Instruction. 
2 45 to 2 50— Rest. 

2 50 to 3 25— Instruction. 

3 25 to 3 35— Rest. 

3 35 to 4 10 — Instruction. 

4 10 to 4 15— Rest. 

4 15 to 4 50 — Instruction. 
4 50 to 5 00— Miscell'n's. 


Roll Call. 

Singing. 

Number. 

Rest. 

Primary Reading. 

Rest. 

spelling. 

Rest. 

Penmanship. 

Query Box. 


Roll Call. 

Singing. 

Grammar. 

Rest. 

Geography. 

Rest. 

Reading. 

Rest. 

History. 

Query Box. 


EVENING SESSION. 


Monday. 


Tuesday. 


7 30 to 7 35— Singing. 

7 35 to 8 00— Discussion. 

8 00 to 9 00— Lecture. 


Singing. 

Discussion. 

Lecture. 


Singing. 

Discussion. 

Lecture. 



Sessions will begin promptly on time; twenty minutes notice 



for a teachers institute. 
Teachers' Institute of One Week, 



385 



Wednesday. 


Thursday. 


Friday. 


Roll Call. 

Devotional Exercises. 

Singing. 

Phonic Analysis. 

Rest. 

Map Drawing. 

Rest. 

Reading. 

Rest. 

Grammar. 

Singing. 


Roll Call. 

Devotional Exercise. 

Singing. 

Arithmetic. 

Rest. 

History. 

Rest. 

Oral Instruction. 

Rest. 

Language. 

Singing. 


Roll Call. 

Devotional Exercise. 

Singing. 

School Discipline. 

Rest. 

Grammar. 

Rest. 

Elem. Nat. Science. 

Rest. 

Physical Geography. 

Singing. 


Wednesday. 


Thursday. 


Friday. 


Roll Call. 

Singing. 

Teaching Alphabet. 

Rest. 

Composition. 

Rest. 

Drawing. 

Rest. 

Geography. 

Miscellaneous 


Roll Call, 

Singing. 

Flow to conduct a 

Rest. [Recitation 

Mathematical Geog. 

Rest. [raphy 

Spelling. 

Rest. 

Elocution. 

Query Box. 


Roll Call. 

Singing. 

Theory & Practice. 

Rest. 

Physiology. 

Rest. 

Review. 

Rest. 

Closing Exercises. 


Wednesday. 


Thursday. 


Friday. 


Singing. 

Discussion. 

Lecture. 


Singing. 

Discussion. 
Lecture. 


Singing. 

Discussion. 

Lecture. 



will be given by the ringing of the bell. 



386 



SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 



Another Programme of Exercises for an 
Ungraded School. 



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chool Management. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



The strength or the weakness of a teacher is no where 
more clearly shown as in the general management of the 
school. 

For the maintenance of a healthy discipline, it is not 
necessary that there should be great severity in the 
punishment of offences. 

Firmness is the first requisite to school management ; 
the pupils must understand that the teacher has abso- 
lute control ; that his authority is supreme ; and this 
in most cases is sufficient in itself to hold the evil pro- 
pensities of pupils in check. 

On the contrary, a lack of firmness will encourage the 
spirit of revolt, and make necessary frequent resorts to 
punishment of one kind or another. 

School government should be administered in such a 
way that it shall be a reign of justice. The sense of justice 
is strong even in the case of vicious children. Offences 
will occur in the best conducted schools, but the teacher 
must discriminate between trivial, aggravated and flagrant 
offences. 

Children know that disobedience and wrong- doing 
in general deserve punishment ; and providing the de- 
gree of punishment does not exceed its just bounds, no 



388 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

feeling of resentment will be cherished toward him who 
inflicts the penalty. 

A teacher should not, generally, make a rule until 
there is necessity for it. It should then be enforced, and 
for a violation of the rule, a penalty should be inflicted. 
Children soon learn to feel a contempt for a teacher who 
does not insist on respectful obedience ; they instinct- 
ively admire the firmness and decision which metes out 
to offenders their deserved punishment. Con^lete suc- 
cess in school management at the outset is not to be ex- 
pected ; only by slow degrees can dexterity in govern- 
ing be attained. Common sense is an important ele- 
ment in management. A noble Quaker once said, 
" There are three things a man needs to make him suc- 
cessful ; first, good health ; second, religion ; and third, 
good sense : if he cannot have but one of these, let it be 
good sense ; for God can give him grace, and God can 
give him religion, but no man can give common sensed 

Administration. 

The most difficult part of school work is the adminis- 
tration. How often have I been asked, " Tell me how 
to govern my school." The subject is the most im- 
portant that can engage the attention of teachers. It 
is one that calls for experience, judgment and wisdom. 
Every pupil has a conscience, that decides on all actions 
contemplated or begun — decides whether the act is 
right or wrong. One rule only, then, need be made : 
"Do nothing that your conscience tells you is wrong." 
This covers the whole ground, and a score of rules will 
only weaken it. Some consciences are depraved, but 
they are seldom seared. 



CHARACTER THE SOURCE OP SUCCESS. 389 

Too much government may prove as injurious as too 
little ; both may prove failures. The teacher should 
govern as little and teach as much as possible. In some 
schools there is more of government than of teaching. 
The pupils snould understand that in no instance will 
the teacher stop the recitation to manage a school or 
discipline a pupil. If the teacher observes that a pupil 
is disorderly during recitation, he should silently mark 
him, and attend to the offence during recess or at some 
convenient opportunity. 

All discipline has its spring in the character of the 
teacher. It depends more on the man than on his 
means. It is character that imparts efficacy to action. 

Character, xot Reputation, is the Source of 

Success. 

Character is the source of success or failure in all pur- 
suits. So apparent is its influence in schools that one 
who had many opportunities for observing has said that, 
" a teacher has more need to watch himself than his 
children, as the evils found in a school are often trace- 
able to some omission, inconsiderateness, hastiness of 
temper, want of firmness, or absence of principle in 
himself." 

The school becomes a reflector of the teacher, and in 
every case it will be a perfect reflector. A teacher can- 
not appear what he is not in the presence of the school. 
The thing is vain. Their eyes pierce through every 
disguise. 

He must be what he seems, and must seem what 
he is. 



3§0 school management, 

Teachers Must Possess High and Noble Qualities, 

Love, honor, truthfulness, sincerity, consistency, 
justice, patience and judgment must be elements of a 
teacher's character. Earnestness and cheerfulness are 
also elements. Earnestness has great influence over 
children ; cheerfulness is sunshine. 

Sympathy with them in their trials, sports and labors 
is an element of power ; but fear, never. 

Is there not a lesson prettily expressed in the fol- 
lowing : 

' ' He who checks a child with terror, 

Stops its play, and stills its song, 
Not alone commits an error, 

But a great and moral wrong. 

" Give it play, and never fear it, — 

Active life is no defect ; 
Never, never break its spirit, — 

Curb it only to direct. 

" Would you stop the flowing river, 

Thinking it would cease to flow ? 
Onward it must flow forever, — 

Better teach it where to go." 

The Teacher Should Use Low Tones. 

Very particularly must it be kept in view by the 
teacher that quietness in governing is most naturally 
allied with good discipline. A loud voice reiterating 
commands in an authoritative tone, is often considered 
favorable to discipline. It is not really so. A quiet way 
of issuing orders is favorable to quietness of disposition 
among the pupils. It conveys a double impression — 
that obedience is expected, and that there is a large re- 



CORRECTION OF COMMON OFFENCES. 391 

serve force at command, if the teacher should have occa- 
sion to need it to use. One thing deserving careful 
consideration is the importance of bringing the habit of 
obedience very early into play. 

If children are accustomed from their very earliest 
school experience to move together in accordance with 
fixed signals, the work of discipline is greatly simplified. 
Simultaneous movements : — as in rising, taking seats 
again, or marching — always contribute to the result in a 
very pleasing way. We would encourage the daily drill 
in Disciplinary Exercises and Calisthenics, as well calculated 
to enforce prompt obedience. 

The first thing that a child should learn is obedience. 
All governments and all peoples have regarded filial dis- 
obedience with great disfavor. The teacher should sup- 
plement the parent's w T ork. 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 



A. — Offences Against the School and Means of 

Correcting. 

I, Communication. 

1. Suggestion, advice, admonition. 

2. Reproof, — make it unpopular. 

3. Restraint of personal liberties. 

4. Separate seat mates. 

5. Printed reports. 

II. Loud Study. 
1. Suspend^exercises until quiet. 



3 92 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

2. Train pupils to study with closed lips. 

3. Reproof. 

Ill, Laughing. 

1. Suspension of exercises. 

2. Pupils laugh until weary of it. 

3. Reproof. 

IV, Moving Noisily. 

1. Train the pupils how to walk, to stand, to sit, and 
to move. 

2. Always admonish them, when a command is vio- 
lated. 

3. Let the pupils try again, until they do it quietly. 

4. Slates should be covered. Teachers should set the 
example. 

V. Questions During Recitation, 

1. Prohibit them. 

2. Show impropriety. 

3. Refuse to notice signals. 

4. Reproof. 

VI. Litter' on the Floor. 

1. Encourage neatness. 

2. Require the floor to be in order. 

3. Carefully inspect the floor in the presence of the 
pupil, without any remarks. 

VII. Writing Notes. 

1. Give pupils all the work they can do. 

2. Read the notes, omitting names. 

3. Ask for the writer. 

4. Destroy the notes without reading them. 



CORRECTION OF COMMON OFFENCES. 393 

Till. Uncle anliness. 

1. Send pupils out. 

2. Send pupils home. 

8. Insist upon cleanliness. 

IX. Disorder. 

1. A place for everything, and everything in its place. 

2. No changing of position, without permission. 

3. Pupils to be held accountable for the care of prop- 
erty. 

4. Quiet attention when addressed. 

Remark. — Instruct, train and drill pupils in habits of 
order, manners and morals. 

B. — Offences Against Pupil, and Means of Cor- 
recting. 

I. Tattling. 

1. Shun impropriety — leads to gossip and slander. 

2. Refuse to notice it. 

3. Reprove. 

4. Show its sinfulness. 

II. Quarreling. 

1. Persuade of its sinfulness. 

2. Oblige pupils to play alone. 

3. Make it unpopular. 

III. Untruthfulness. 
1. Ignorance. 



i 2. Thoughtlessness. 
1. Find out the cause. ■< c 1C f 

3. Selfishness 



2. Tell them the effect. i 

3. Cultivate honor. 



4. Innate tendency. 

1. Loss of reputation. 

2. Loss of character. 

3. Los< <>f conscience. 

4. General demoralization. 



c 

A Wor\p in Conclusion. 



The facts of the past, the claims of the present, and 
the responsibilities of the future suggest so much which 
might be said, that 1 am somewhat perplexed in decid- 
ing upon what I ought to say. Nevertheless I have con- 
cluded to say a few words to the readers of the School- 
Room Guide. 

To Commissioners and Superintendents. 

Upon you rest, to a great extent, the success of the 
schools and the advancement of the educational interests 
of this country. 

It is by the recommending and licensing of competent 
and efficient teachers that you are the most successful 
in promoting the interests of your charge. Let the 
teachers recommended by you be selected more with 
reference to social culture, exalted moral character, to the 
development of true manhood and womanhood, than to 
either scholarship or talent. This you can do by select- 
ing and recommending only such persons as shall illus- 
trate in their lives the moral lessons which should be set 
as an example in schools. 

You stand pledged to further the interests, not only 
of literature and science, but of the highest type of 
morality. 



LESSONS TAUGHT BY EXPERIENCE. 395 

If you would redeem this pledge you will not license 
as a teacher any one who violates the law of moral 
purity, who gives to social dissipation the hours that 
belong to sleep, or who indulges in any practice of vice. 
A sacred trust is committed to you, which, if faithfully 
and wisely discharged, will make your own day beauti- 
ful, and scatter blessings along the pathway of coming 
y ears. 

Conclusions Drawn From Experience. 

An experience of thirty years in the field of education 
has secured principles and conclusions which may be 
considered not only general statements, but facts. One 
fundamental fact thus gained is, that the school should 
be an appendage of the family, fitted to train the 
ignorant and weak by self-sacrificing labor and love, 
and to bestow the most attention on the weakest, the 
most undeveloped and the most sinful. 

It is exactly the opposite course to which teachers 
are most tempted. The bright, the good, the indus- 
trious, are those whom it is most agreeable to teach, 
who win most affection, and who promote the reputa- 
tion of a teacher, and of a school or a college. 

To follow the principle, then, demands more clear 
views of duty and more self-denying benevolence than 
ordinarily abound. 

Another general principle obtained by experience is, 
that both quickness of perception and retentiveness of 
memory depend very greatly on the degree of interest 
excited. 

By this same general principle of quickening intellect 
by exciting interest, we have learned the importance of 



396 A WORD IN CONCLUSION. 

educating young persons with some practical aim, by 
which, in case of poverty, they may support them- 
selves. 

Another very interesting fact revealed by personal 
experience is, that there is no other knowledge so thor- 
ough and permanent as that gained in teaching others. 

Repeatedly has it been observed that a lesson or a 
problem supposed to be comprehended was imperfect, 
and corrected only in attempts to aid others in under- 
standing it. In no other profession is the sacred 
promise, " Give and it shall be given unto you," so fully 
realized as in that of a teacher. 

Another important principle in acquiring knowledge 
is to take but few branches at one time and especially 
to have these associated in 'their character, so that each 
is an assistance in understanding and remembering the 
others. 

There is a great loss of time and labor in the com- 
mon method of pursuing four or rive disconnected 
branches of study. 

The mind is distracted by variety, and feels a feeble 
and divided interest. 

In many instances, the method of cramming the mind 
with uninteresting and disconnected details serves to 
debilitate rather than to promote mental power. The 
memory is the faculty chiefly cultivated, and this at the 
expense of the others. 

To Teachers. 

In government, be gentle yet firm ; not anxious to 
govern in those things that are innocent and harmless, 
but to restrain practices that are unquestionably immoral 



RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEACHING. 397 

by the exercise of all the authority with which you are 
invested. 

In order that you may worthily discharge the duties 
which thus confront you at the threshold of your field 
of labor, it is of the first importance that your own 
habits of thought and life be wholly correct. 

No one is fit to govern others until he has learned to 
govern himself. Self-government and self-restraint are 
not possible without intelligence and virtue. 

The task of the teacher is one of great responsibility 
and labor. 

It is easier for a general to command an army than 
for a teacher to govern a school ; for a general has to 
deal with and consider only immediate results, besides 
being invested with absolute power, while the teacher 
has to consider chiefly results to be attained in the 
future, and he is forbidden by the consideration of his 
own and the pupil's welfare to exercise other than 
qualified power. 

Then the military commander trains his soldiers to 
wield only weapons against material fortifications, while 
the teacher is to discipline those under his control in 
the skilful use of the mental and moral powers, and pre- 
pare them to contend successfully against superstition, 
begotten of ignorance, against habits of thought and 
action that reach their root far back in the centuries, 
and "against spiritual wickedness in high places." 
Hence great statesmen and victorious generals are of 
little value in any country without efficient teachers. 

To our public schools we must look for those who 
will be called upon to manage the affairs of families, to 
transact the business of town and of State, to fill the 



398 .A WORD IN CONCLUSION. 

vacated bench of justice, to sit in the halls of legisla- 
tion, and to direct and control the church of God. 

Upon the character of our schools and teachers, 
therefore, depends the weal or woe of unborn millions, 
the prosperity or downfall of our boasted institutions. 

As the concluding thought, teachers and friends, may 
we all bear in mind that our life in this world is but the 
preparatory department in the School of God. 

Let us be so attentive to the lessons given us by the 
Great Teacher, that when the day of examination with 
us severally shall come, we may hear the glad w r elcome 
" well done," and at last gather beyond the River, 
under the cloudless sky, undimmed by the shade of night, 
there to renew our search for knowledge and our labors of 
love, with immortal faculties that are least weary when 
most employed. 



FINIS. 



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